"Literary Researches" is an annual scholarly review published by Shota Rustaveli Institute of Georgian Literature and includes topics and problems relevant to the modern literary criticism, as well as unpublished results of important research. The mission of the journal is the internationalization of Kartvelian Studies - full integration of Georgian literature into world literary and cultural processes. Articles are published in three languages (Georgian, English, Russian), Articles are peer reviewed.
Shota Rustaveli Institute of Georgian Literature
Irma Ratiani’s book „The Poetics of Drama with Georgian Accent“
Who is Irma Ratiani’s The Poetics of Drama with Georgian Accent intended for? Naturally, it is written for philologists and future philologists, since drama is a literary category that demands deep understanding of its origins and historical deve­lopment. At the same time, it is equally relevant for theater professi­onals and students of theatrical arts, who must grasp the genre’s specific features and perceive the imprint of different eras within it. And of course, it is for every culturally minded reader who loves literature – not merely as a story, however stirring or tragic, but as a complex artistic structure. The book opens with the genesis of the genre of tragedy and gradually outlines the process by which tragedy evolved into a literary form. Irma Ratiani not only explains the Aristotelian essence of poetry but also clarifies its function. However, her aim is not to provide a comprehensive analysis of Aristotle’s Poetics. Her primary interest lies in the poetics of drama, which is why she focuses on the rigorously structured framework of tragedy as a form of mi­mesis. Ratiani traces the trajectory of tragedy from antiquity to modernism – a history as compelling as the course of human civi­lization itself. Even a genre as “majestic” as tragedy, she reveals, can lose its “royal” status in cer­tain epochs, only to reemerge in transformed guises in others. In describing this evolution, the author devotes special attention to William Shakespeare, recognizing his contribution as marking a new era in the history of tragic drama. Ratiani does not limit herself to examining the creative principles of dramatists across periods; she also brings in the perspectives of key theorists of the genre. The author approaches literary values from a scholarly stand­point. Her position – possibly controversial but resolutely principled – is clearly articulated in the following statement: “No­thing of value, including literary texts, is created within a set of prede­ter­mined rules defined in ad­van­ce by the author. However, the interpreter – the researcher – who re­con­structs a text by considering its explicit or im­pli­ed rules, often arrives at a more accurate explanation of its hidden and obs­cure layers than the author themselves” (Ratiani, 2025, p. 95). This stance permeates the entire book. For Georgian readers, the most intriguing section is the third chapter: "Ref­lections of the Tragic Genre’s Canon in Georgian Literature and Possibilities for Theoretical Readings." This chapter begins by noting that since the era of “late realism,” Georgian literature has aligned it­self with the leading trends in European dramaturgy and has assimilated new theories of tragedy. Des­pite the fact that the repertoire of early Geor­gian drama does not include classical tragedies, Ratiani argues that “original Georgian prose texts are constructed on the framework and techniques of drama and possess a hybrid character.”. Moreover, she suggests that Geor­gia’s relatively “modest” dra­ma­tic tradition is bolstered by specific examples of fictional prose that, both in content and structure, align with the principles of classical drama. For this reason, the author conditionally refers to these works as examples of “Geor­gian dramatic prose,” through which Georgian literature both engages with the theories of tragedy and expresses its own original nature. The book’s particular significance lies in its inter­pretation of Georgian literary texts wi­thin the context of global literary processes. What makes this study distin­ctive is that the researcher identifies in original Georgian prose the structu­re, techniques, principles, and develop­mental tendencies of drama – thus connecting Georgian literature to the global theory of tragedy and analyzing it in relation to European literary tra­ditions. This original approach renders Irma Ratiani’s work especially va­luab­le from an academic standpoint.
Political Pamphlet: A Protest Against the Centenary Celebration
In 1901, a political pamphlet titled “The Incorporation of Georgia into the Russian Empire” was published in Kutaisi in the Russian language – as a sharp protest against the pompous celebration of what was called the “uni­on” of Georgia with Russia – in reality, the centenary of its occupation. For the first time, and with considerable depth, the pamphlet exami­ned both the Treaty of Georgievsk concluded during the reign of King Erekle II, and the Articles of Petition submitted by King George XII, boldly asserting that neither the first nor the second document envisaged the com­plete abolition of Georgian statehood or Georgia’s incorporation into the Russian Empire as a territorial unit or southern province – actions through which Russia would even go so far as to abolish the autocephaly of the Geor­gian Church. By that time, the author – scholar, politician, and chairman of the Lea­gue for the Freedom of Georgia, Mikheil Kheltuplishvili – had already pas­sed away. Later, Ivane Javakhishvili would highly value his work and rein­force its legal assessments with additional arguments, yet the name of Mikheil Kheltuplishvili would gradually fade into obscurity. Now, its Georgian version has been published, translated by Miranda Tkeshelashvili, with an extensive biographical essay and commentary by Dodo Chumburidze – in a sense, bringing Mikheil Kheltuplishvili closer to Solomon Dodashvili, thereby fully illuminating the personal virtues and scholarly-political contributions of the young scholar who passed away at the age of twenty-six.
Hermeneutic Analysis of Besik Kharanauli's Poem "Due to Lack of Words": Existential Loneliness and the Creative Burden
This article presents a hermeneutic analysis of "Due to Lack of Words“, a significant poem by the prominent contemporary Georgian poet, Besik Kharanauli. The study aims to delve into the profound thematic and figura­tive layers of the text, utilizing the hermeneutic methodology to fully grasp the author's intentions and the intrinsic value of the artistic work itself. Given that poetry often employs figurative language, a hermeneutic app­roach, as a theory of interpretation, is crucial for uncovering the poem's hid­den, subtextual meanings and achieving a deep understanding of the author's vision. Our analysis primarily draws upon Hans-Georg Gadamer's concept of the „hermeneutic circle“, a fundamental principle that emphasizes the inter­connectedness of the part and the whole within a text. This method allows for a comprehensive, rather than superficial, examination of the poem's aes­thetics, seeking appropriate explanations for the author's underlying mea­ning. Hermeneutics, as the art of interpretation, highlights the interplay bet­ween the text, the author, the reader, and the broader context, enabling us to comprehend the existential loneliness, creative burden, and the poet's alienation from the world as depicted in the poem. The hermeneutic analysis of „Due to Lack of Words“ reveals it as a deeply layered artistic text, reflecting on existential loneliness, the creative burden, and the tragic fate of the poet. By applying Gadamer's principles of the „hermeneutic circle,“ it becomes clear how individual elements of the poem – such as its title, the refrain „Don't call me, Mother“, the feeling of past burden, and the poet's „illness of foolishness“ – acquire profound signi­ficance within the overall context of the work. The analysis demonstrates that the speaker's rejection of their mother is not impulsive, but rather an expression of a heavy internal state, provoked by the sense of life's futility (echoing Ecclesiastes' vanity) and the inherent tragedy of the artist's creative burden. Concurrently, „hermeneutic“details within the poem, such as the difficulty of "lifting one's head," the mother's voice associating with pain, and the illusory nature of the past, point to the lyric hero's deep psychological and emotional exhaustion. The poem's titular phrase, "Due to Lack of Words“, serves as a crucial guide, hinting at a rupture of identity, where "word" (logos) signifies divini­ty for the lyrical hero, and its "absence" suggests a Nietzschean "death of God“. Consequently, life loses its meaning and becomes empty, rendering the individual akin to a „dummy“, reminiscent of T.S. Eliot's „Hollow Men“. The repeated refrain, „Don't call me, Mother“, underscores the protagonist's profound isolation and pain, indicating a tragic alienation from both self and the world. This can be interpreted as a desire for enforced isolation or „in­ter­nal emigration“, especially within the Soviet era context, but also as an individual spiritual crisis stemming from various subjective and objective circumstances across any epoch. Furthermore, the poem delves into the poet's self-perception, port­raying himself as „sick with foolishness“ – not madness, but an overwhel­ming expenditure of creative energy that was misdirected or found no complete outlet. The comparison of his song to a bird's, where it doesn't re­turn, symbolizes the one-sided nature of the creative process. The lines about not rushing to shed weaknesses and not exchanging dreams for reality highlight the poet's pessimism and disillusionment, suggesting his dreams were too beautiful to be fulfilled in a harsh reality. The poem also reflects on the poetic calling as a curse and a blessing, where the poet experiences an acute sensitivity to the world's minutiae, seeking to feel „every needle, every eyelash“. This resonates with Baude­laire's „Benediction“, where the mother curses the birth of her poet son. The poem tragically equates poetry not with happiness, but with destruction, consuming the poet's „heart and liver“. The ultimate burden lies in the poet's inability to describe the world directly, symbolizing the creative anguish and uniqueness of finding a new language. In conclusion, Besik Kharanauli's „Due to Lack of Words“ not only portrays the poet's individual crisis but also reveals universal truths about the human psyche, the weight of creation, and the complexities of dialogue with the world. Gadamer's concept of the „fusion of horizons“ supports the idea that despite the different experiences of the poet and the reader, the text creates a new space for understanding, where shared existential feelings are exchanged. Thus, „Due to Lack of Words“ remains a significant literary work that compels the reader towards profound reflection and interpretation.
Photography as a Medium of Traumatic Narrative in Nino Kharatishvili’s Novel The Lack of Light
This article investigates the role of photography as a communicative medium in the preservation and representation of both individual and socio-cultural traumatic memory, using the literary text “The insufficient Light by Nino Kharatishvili as the primary case study. By analysing the characters’ interactions with photography in the novel, the research explores how pho­tographic images can serve not only as visual representations of past events but also as active agents in reawakening, processing, and ultimately working through trauma. The theoretical framework draws upon Roland Barthes’ concepts of studium and punctum to highlight the differing ways in which photographs are experienced. The image may be seen merely as an object of historical ob­ser­vation (studium) for the casual viewer, while for someone with personal ties to the moment depicted, the photograph may act as a “wound” (punc­tum) that reopens buried emotional experiences. This distinction becomes central in the analysis of how the narrator, Keto Kipiani, engages with the pho­tographs taken by her friend Dina. For Keto, these images are emotio­nally charged representations of painful, personal moments that reawaken her suppressed simply as visual documents. Building on Cathy Caruth’s theory of trauma as unclaimed experience, the research demonstrates that the characters in Haratischwili’s text suffer from a delayed or deferred recognition of their trauma. Rather than conf­ronting the emotional weight of past events directly, they initially attempt to suppress or forget. However, trauma continues to haunt them in unack­nowledged ways until a later moment provokes its re-emergence. In the no­vel, such a moment arises when Keto attends Dina’s photo exhibition, which becomes the catalyst for her to recall and reflect upon each traumatic me­mo­ry. Through this encounter, she begins a process of self-understanding and healing. Dominick LaCapra’s theory on working through trauma further in­forms the analysis, emphasizing that recovery requires not only the reactiva­tion of traumatic memories but also their rational examination. Keto’s int­ros­pective engagement with the photographs aligns with LaCapra’s model: her acknowledgment of pain and active reflection allows her to move from a position of being haunted by trauma to one of potential resolution. The study ultimately argues that the photographs taken by Dina func­tion as manifestations of collective and personal traumatic memory. The act of viewing them – especially by those who share the traumatic past –enables a confrontation with previously unprocessed emotions and memories. Thus, The Scant Light presents a compelling literary demonstration of how pho­tography can serve as a unique medium for the representation, communica­tion, and possible resolution of trauma. It concludes that photographic art holds significant potential as a medium through which traumatic memory – whether individual or societal – can be made visible, narrativised, and emo­tionally processed.
Theme of War in the German and Georgian Baroque Literature
The fierce Thirty Years' War in 17th century Germany (1618-1648) and the internal political chaos in 18th century Georgia (political fragmentation), the foreign aggression of the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Iran against Georgia became the subject of poetic creativity, in particular, in the works of the famous German Baroque writer Andreas Gryphius (1616-1664) and the poem "Davitiani" by the representative of Georgian Baroque, Davit Guramishvili (1705-1792). War is considered here as an apocalyptic event that not only destroys the homeland politically and economically but also war is regarded as a universal catastrophe, because it destroys all perspec­tives on human existence, making the course of history lose its meaning. The ly­rical characters of these authors reflect this hopelessness and meaning­lessness with the baroque characteristic of Baroque, the deep sense of vanity, and the high style of Baroque poetry (genus grande), which makes the theme of war more apocalyptic than apocalypse itself. Thus, if Gryphius' sonnet “Thränen des Vaterlandes. Anno 1636” is set within the framework of the thirty-year war, where the apocalyptic visions of an objective universal catastrophe and the expectation of this apocalypse are conveyed, then in Guramishvili's lyrical poem we have reflections on the subjective existential fate, which is caused by a priori objective existences - political destabilization (historical factor) and the perfidy of "life" and "exis­tence'', that is, by the spontaneity and unpredictability of existence (ontolo­gical factor) - "it is not in the hands of the one who holds it, but if you hold it with a fist". And here, the subjectivism of the lyrical hero of Gurami­shvi­li's poem, i.e. his subjective reflections on his existence, suddenly turns into an objective existential situation, namely, using Sartre's terminology, the existence of the lyrical hero of "Davitiani" can be perceived as "being" (Fr. en-soi, Germ. An-sich-ein, Existenz) and "essence“ (Fr. pour-soi, Germ. Für-sich-sein, Essenz) in the objectively given dialectic (Galle, 2009, p. 20; Se­ibert, 1997, p. 128), e. i. in the objectively given dialectic of existence and being when first there are existing and its ontological data, and then the personal existence of a person written in these data. Therefore, a priori we have an existential situation, when the existing and its ontological data al­ways pre­cede and forego the person (respectively, the lyrical hero of "Daviti­ani") and his private existence, and these ontological data (for example, birth, death, historical existence, temporality, transience, impermanence, etc.) appear to a person (respectively, the lyrical hero of "Davitiani") as they are already wri­tten in advance, as they already exist beforehand.
Georgia in the Azerbaijani Cultural Space
Georgians and Azerbaijanis have been living side by side in the South Caucasus since ancient times. Despite the fact that Georgia is an ancient Orthodox country, and Azerbaijan is a part of Islamic civilization, ethnic and religious differences have never become the cause of wars caused by mutual hatred. Not only in ancient times, but also in the following centuries, our ancestors considered Azerbaijani-Georgian cultural relations as spiritual kinship. The text of Shota Rustveli's poem confirms this cultural closeness: in the intertextual space of "The Knight in the Panther’s Skin" we not only hear the characters of "Leyli and Majnun" (1188) by Nizami Ganjavi, but also the allusions of the poem's episodes: (1327.4). Nizami's heroes are also mentioned in "Tamariani" by Chakhrukhadze (1170-1212). The heroes of Nizami never evoked the feeling of "stranger" in Georgian readers: Georgia was not a "stranger" country for Azerbaijani poets (Khaqani Shirvani, Falaki Shirvani, Mola Vali Vidadi, Mola Panah Vagif itc.) In the 19th century the Russian Empire conquers the North Caucasus; the kingdoms and khanates of the South Caucasus gradually lose their independence. In the 40s of XIX century Tbilisi (Tiflis) became the political-administrative, socio-economic and cultural center of the Caucasus. Almost all prominent figures of Transcaucasia lived and worked in Tiflis (Mirza Fatali Akhundov, Abasquli Agha Bakikhanov, Ismail Bey Gutgashinli and many others. Famous Azerbaijani writers Nariman Narimanov Abdullah Shaygi Talibzade and others were born here. As a result, different, the so-called "Literary space of Tiflis" was established. The work of Azerbaijani writers in the literary space of Tiflis had a great impact on the development of Azerbaijani writing and contributed to its Europeanization. Literary enlightenment that began at the turn of the 19th-20th cen­turies was of special importance for the Azerbaijani literary process, in the development of which the literary environment of Tiflis played a part. In the late 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, Tiflis was one of the important centers of Azerbaijani culture. Narimanov's, Akhverdiyev's, Vezirov's and others' plays were staged, but the most important contribution to the development of Azerbaijani drama belongs to Mirza Fatali Akhundov plays. If in the 19th century Mirza Fatali Akhundov appears as a prominent figure in the Azerbaijani literary space of Tiflis, at the beginning of the 20th century it is already a prose writer, publisher of the magazine "Molla Nas­raddin" Jalil Mammadkulizade (in the years 1906-1914 the famous Azerba­ijani satirical magazine "Molla Nasraddin" was printed in Tiflis). Azerbaijani literary works were often published in Georgian newspapers. During the Soviet period, the Georgian-Azerbaijani literary lifestyle changed: Tbilisi lost the function of the Transcaucasian administrative center and the Azerbaijani cultural center, but the leading ideas of the soci­alist ideology of "friendship of peoples" and the creation of a new identity of the "Soviet people" promoted cultural relations and personal contacts. At the end of the 20th century the development process of Georgian-Azerbaijani literary relations slowed down, but later it was not only restored, but under­went qualitative changes, which corresponded to the ongoing democratic reforms in public life.
Literary masterpieces stand out for their timelessness and, often, for crafting figurative language so skillfully that their meaning transcends any specific era. To achieve this, the author must be a virtuoso – mastering the magic of words and conveying profound artistic and philosophical depths. Antoine de Saint-Exupéry’s the Little Prince exemplifies such exquisite figurative language, even though it is commonly described simply as a literary fairy tale. However, the fairy-tale quality lies in the intense and unusual nature of this literary masterpiece. At the same time, it reveals a uniquely rich ar­tis­tic symbolism. Through this, the author leads the reader into an associative labyrinth, teaching them to confront loneliness by befriending the “smiling star” – the Little Prince. Here we must also take into account that Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's "The Little Prince" captivates its readers with a completely irresistible charm, because he himself, all his life (before the appearance of The Little Prince), was looking for a companion who would understand the world with an irrational vision. An unusual friend would appear, to whom dreams would not pose a threat, who would always manage to "make connections" with his heart, and most importantly, would definitely distance himself from the false pathos of wit. Based on this set of thoughts, it is quite appropriate to "reread" the biography of "Land of Men". At the same time, we should not forget that just as the little prince returns to his tiny planet thanks to the snake, so too, when leaving the world, he finds us in a completely unusual space of thought. There, where the snake puts our whole life in mystical chains and wraps it in an incomprehensible taboo haze... This esoteric rebus became easily recognizable to Saint-Exupéry, be­cause he contrasted the serpent's seductive essence with a fox - distinguished by his "life-giving wisdom." It is through his insight that the little prince will master the incomparable art of "making connections" and help him overcome the unbearable pain he suffered from his planet... In such circumstances, a rose appeared in the life of the Little Prince. This eloquent cosmic flower is saturated with “divine breath”, which at the same time embodies the “center of the universe” and is universal in its charisma and fatal charm of feeling. Naturally, we should not forget that Antoine de Saint-Exupery was able to “read” life in this way by “co-authoring” with the Little Prince.
Cultural Transfer in Georgian-Ukrainian Literary Relations: Hrytsko Khalymonenko – Translator of Georgian Literature
Translation as an interdisciplinary field is the subject of research in various branches of the humanities. Theoretical reflections on interme­di­aries, through which literary-cultural relations evolve, have always been and remain highly relevant both to translatology and comparative literature criticism. The work of the Ukrainian Georgian scholar and translator, Hryts Khaly­monenko, has unjustly remained underappreciated by researchers. As highlighted in the selected analytical sources for this presentation, his trans­lation work is one of the most significant segments in the development and diversification of Georgian-Ukrainian literary relations in the second half of the 20th century. In 2021, an interview with the elderly scholar and translator Hryts Khalymonenko was published in the 17-18th and 19th issues of the journal „Literary Ukraine“, with the title "The Patriarch's Autumn." This long interview features a subtitle: "I am 100% Ukrainian and 100% Georgian." The article includes many important and unknown facts that have never been analyzed in either Georgian or Ukrainian literary studies concerning their literary relations. Consequently, using the methodology of cultural tran­sfer, the presentation will be based on the information presented in the interview. By generalizing the information, we will analyze the so-called "third force," which, according to this methodology, refers to preparing the foundation for the acceptance of a foreign cultural context in the recipient culture, analyzing literary-cultural processes, supra-literary factors, reve­aling cultural specifics and intercultural differences, translation norms, and more. Research sources also include journalistic materials related to the tran­s­lator in Georgia, as well as Ukrainian-language translations by Khaly­mo­nenko that I have collected, whose theoretical translational research shows the hermeneutic paradigms for understanding foreign texts and cultures. The methodology of cultural transfer involves identifying synchronous and diachronic relations between the contexts of the transmitting and receiving sides. As a result, the presentation will highlight general trends in the translation of Georgian literature in Ukraine and its place in the poly-systemic paradigm of literary translation. The research presents previously unknown facts and literary histories – the connections between the transla­tor and the Ukrainian dissident movement, as well as their opposition to the Soviet ideological context (for years, Khalymonenko was on the list of ban­ned authors, and his texts were not published, including those concerning the translation of Georgian literature). To further explore these unknown his­tories, the presentation uses qualitative research, primarily the key informant interview.
Some Ancient Parallels in Giovanni Pascoli’s Myricae
When studying the reception of classical themes in the literature of any given nation, scholars first seek out passages where ancient historical figures, places, or characters from ancient Greek and Roman mythology are explicitly mentioned. In such cases, the link between the modern and the clas­sical texts – whether direct or indirect – is undeniable. Yet it remains essential to consider what deeper significance the writer’s invocation of classical material conveys. Far more intriguing – and more challenging – is uncovering subtler resemblances that surface in a particular poetic image, a narrative detail, or even a single epithet echoing the motifs of classical literature. True, in these instances the author does not name ancient Greek or Roman characters or locales, but the more striking the parallel to classical forms or tropes, the more justified it becomes. Revealing these parallels allows us to read not on­ly the new work with fresh insight but also to rediscover the ancient source itself from a renewed perspective. In this light, Giovanni Pascoli’s oeuvre is especially revealing, for Pascoli was, by training and profession, a classicist. He not only taught Greek and Latin grammar and Roman literature at the universities of Bologna, Messina, and Pisa at various times, but also was a pro­lific translator of classical texts. His first symbolist poetry collection – which he continued to enrich with new poems throughout his life, just as Petrarch kept augmenting his Book of Songs – holds a singular place in Italian verse. The poet deliberately chose the Latin word “myricae” rather than the Italian “tamerici” (“tamarisks”). Even the title of this collection is inspired by classical literature: Pascoli takes “myricae” from a passage in Virgil’s Bucolics: Sicelides Musae, paulo maiora canamus! Non omnis arbusta iuvant humilesque myricae. The poet prefaced not only Myricae but also two other collections – Canti di Castelvecchio and Poemi Conviviali – with this quotation as an epigraph, because in all three volumes his focus falls on small, everyday stories and ordinary people. In the present article, I discuss two of the poet’s shorter poems, “La cu­citrice” and “O reginella”. Although no ancient characters or geographic lo­ca­les are mentioned in them, the inspiration drawn from classical literature remains unmistakable.
Culturological and Poetological Aspects of the Creative Work of Blue Horns
The Knightly ethos of Blue Horns is based on a system of values that represents the creative-intellectual unity of like-minded individuals. These individuals are united socially through friendship, citizenship, and family tradition, as well as by a common creative idea. In terms of creativity, the aim of Blue Horns is to fully utilize the creative potential of Georgian cul­ture, overcome epigonism, and restore the deep tradition of poetic word-ma­king, strengthening it further by incorporating global traditions. The entire legacy of Blue Horns is the result of conceptually organized and well-thought-out activities. The concept of service, serving as the primary objective and hallmark of the knightly ethos within Blue Horns, can be seen as the fulfillment of a historic role through poetic dedication, akin to the brotherhood of devoted, self-sacrificing knights. At the core of this service lies an unwavering belief in the poetic mission as the guardian and driving force of national culture. The profound dedication to this pursuit, elevated to the level of faith, is articulated in the words of Titsian Tabidze: "Just as the 13 Assyrian fathers planted Orthodox Christianity in Georgia, so too did the Blue Horns for true poetry." The main quality of knightly ethos is bravery, which is confirmed by the ability to strive. In order to renew Georgian poetry, the ecstasy of the fight is well seen in the daily life of Blue Horns as well as in their poetic and essayistic creations. Together with the readiness to fight, it's openly declared the memory of historic and future sacrifice as well as premonition (Titsian Tabidze: "We also should be killed somewhere"). Blue Horns are a type of demilitarized knights with a living knowledge of knightly attributes but, due to epochal reality, lacking the social-cultural context of knights ("and there is not seen the field for knights"). So, along with devotion to knightly norms, we can observe the rupture of its boun­daries and sometimes playing with these norms and the masks related to them. At the same time, there is a deep sorrow for the disappearance of these norms.
“Text within the text” is a specific rhetorical and narrative construc­tion in which the differentiation in the coding of various textual layers be­comes a consciously revealed factor – shaping both the author’s compositi­onal strategy and the reader’s interpretive experience. In their article On the Semiotic Mechanism of Culture, Lotman and Uspensky (1971) observed: “The 20th century has produced not only metalanguages of science, but also a metaliterature and meta-metapainting and apparently is creating a meta­cul­ture – an all-encompassing metalingual system of a secondary order.” In literary theory, Lotman's model has developed along two main directions: 1. Texts that openly display traces of their own creative process – what can be called, conditionally, a “novel about a novel”; and 2. The so-called “novel within a novel,” in which real and fictional narrative planes are juxtaposed within a single textual framework. Narrative theorist Ryan (2005) notes that “tellability is at least partly a matter of conceptual and logical complexity of a situation, or of a sequence of events,” and that this depends on “an underlying system of what we can call ‘embedded narratives’ – story-like representations produced in the mind of a character and reproduced in the mind of a reader”. Accordingly, a strong structural and conceptual connection exists between the “main text” and the “embedded narratives,” including their characters, events, and chronotope. Zaira Arsenishvili’s novel “Images under the Moonlight” exemplifies the “novel within a novel” structure. The frame narrative centers on Tiko, a junior research fellow at the Telavi Regional Museum of History and Ethno­graphy. The inner narrative – Tiko’s fictional work – recounts the final days of King Erekle II. This second narrative also follows the tradition of the ποιούμενον novel: it is written by Tiko, who simultaneously appears as various characters within it. Fowler (1982) notes that “the imaginary work being composed within the story continually gives opportunities for self-reference”, a dynamic that causes the inner and outer narratives to merge and intertwine. Moreover, the embedded narrative remains deliberately fragmentary: regardless of the narrator’s eloquence, the text repeatedly returns to the frame story. Tiko’s “Chronicles” consist of several essay-like fragments embedded in correspon­ding sections of the main text. These fragments are closely tied to the city of Telavi and affect the fate of the frame narrative’s characters – not only in the 1960s, but also in the 1990s – underscoring the recursive, layered structure of the novel.
The Image of Shota Rustaveli in the Poetry of Galaktion Tabidze
This paper identifies and examines, with relative completeness, the poetic works of Galaktion Tabidze in which the figure of Shota Rustaveli is represented. As it turns out, Galaktion refers to the great Georgian poet with considerable frequency. For Galaktion, Rustaveli is the highest, most mag­nificent, and unparalleled creator in poetry – “the glory of Georgia,” “the pri­de of the nation,” “sublime,” “the genius of a solar people,” “a titan,” “lau­re­ate with a wreath of laurels,” “immortal,” “the sun among suns,” “divine.” Galaktion consistently elevates Rustaveli and presents his greatness alon­gsi­de that of the world's most distinguished poets – Virgil, Eschenbach, Pet­rarch, Dante, Shakespeare, Shelley, and Byron. For Galaktion, Rustaveli is the point of origin and the foundational figure of Georgian poetry. In por­traying the glory of Georgia, he almost exclusively invokes Rustaveli. The poet describes Rustaveli as the "light of the eye" of the ancient Georgian people, a spiritual beacon, and the creator of "mighty, heroic" poet­ry. For Galaktion, Rustaveli’s poetry embodies the “great celebration of cre­ation,” a joy akin to communion with the divine. The “rhythm of words,” “the inner movement of thought,” “the diversity of sounds,” and harmony –all of these are defining features of Rustaveli’s verse. Galaktion regards Rustaveli as a creator of “pure conscience,” and The Knight in the Panther’s Skin, a guide and a mirror for life’s path, as a “book that triumphs with ho­nest conscience.” In Galaktion’s view, among all creators of the world, only Rustaveli possesses the power to save. Rustaveli is a medium – firmly grounded on earth yet reaching into the heavens, heir to the old and father of the new, standing at the intersection of horizontal and vertical dimen­sions of time and space. Hence, he is both redeemer and savior. Galaktion bows before and gives thanks to the “genius” of the past. In Galaktion’s poetry, Rustaveli is frequently associated with Meskheti and referred to as a “Meskhetian poet.” This view derives from the first stan­za of the epilogue of The Knight in the Panther’s Skin, where a “certain Mes­khetian poet” claims to be writing in Rustaveli’s style. Galaktion appears to accept Rustaveli’s origin in Meskheti. In this understanding, Galaktion, like the Meskhetian poet of the epilogue, strives to follow in Rustaveli’s foot­steps and offer a new word to Georgian poetry. Several of Galaktion’s poems reveal parallels between himself and Rustaveli, and between their respective eras. In some verses, Rustaveli emerges as Galaktion’s second lyr­ical “I,” through whose voice Galaktion conveys his own message. He con­ceives both Rustaveli’s and his own work as texts of the universe. In a broader sense, Rustaveli in Galaktion’s poetry is represented as the embodiment of the Georgian people. Galaktion sees in him the “titanic” po­wer, wisdom, love, indomitable warrior spirit, and self-sacrifice of the Geor­gian nation. Rustaveli in Galaktion’s work bridges the old and new epochs – their thoughts and messages. Some poems are devoted to glorifying his grandeur, sublimity, and uniqueness, linking him to eternity. In other cases, the figure of the ancient Rustaveli is replaced by the desire for a new Rustaveli – a po­etic idea born of Galaktion’s age, meant to praise an unprecedented reality, to sing of “revolutionary Georgia,” and to glorify a new era.
Shalva Dadiani's The Yesterday’s People: The Theatrical Version of the Play in the Period of Developed Socialism
Shalva Dadiani's play The Yesterday’s People was written in 1917, long before the establishment of the Socialist Realism method and the Soviet Union itself. In the 1930s, Georgian literary critics put the writer's early works in the Soviet ideological context and compared them to the works of Maxim Gorky, the founder of Socialist Realism. What do one of the best examples of Georgian drama and the works of a classic of Russian literature have in common? Why was Shalva Dadian's dramaturgy denounced as one of the earliest examples of Socialist Realism? Why are the characters of the play unique, and why did the author judge them? To what extent was the fate of the play determined by the time fac­tor? These issues will be discussed in the paper. In 1972, by then a well-known theatre director, Temur Chkheidze sta­ged The Yesterday’s People at the Rustaveli Theatre. What created his inte­rest towards the play written in 1917 during the period of so-called Deve­loped Socialism? How was realism understood in the 1970s, and how did this understanding differ from the realism of the literary works of the beginning of the century? The Yesterday’s People is a satirical comedy in which Shalva Dadiani’s goal is to criticise the social reality, and he indeed succeeded. Shalva Dadi­ani's characters are the objects of the writer's harsh criticism, these features of critical realism are abundant in the play. However, Temur Chkheidze reinterpreted the play and created a tragicomedy, which he considered among his top three productions. At the same time, he was deeply emotional about it and had a painful attitude; even after some time had passed, he still avoided watching the recorded material. In the paper, we will discuss the main messages of the theatre director, communicated through the play by Shalva Dadiani, and their consistency with the playwright's concept. In the performance, the stage space was occupied by only one long tab­le. This pictorial solution, proposed by the stage designer Mikheil Chavcha­vadze, became a visualised metaphor of the world view of the playwright and the theatre director. This metaphor has become a classic of Georgian scenography. The paper will present an analysis of interesting facts about the collaborative work of the director and scenographer, based on materials preserved at the Rustaveli Theatre Museum. Based on the press materials of the 1970s, we will demonstrate how, during the period of developed socialism, performance and play were eval­uated, and how The Yesterday's People is perceived today.
The Poem „Spring Evening“ by Teranti Graneli and Daoist Paradigm of Space
The depiction of space in poetry merges psycho-emotional and mate­rial dimensions. Cultural heritage delineates different types of spaces; in Eas­tern painting and poetry, there exists a distinct model influenced by Chinese philosophy. Here, nature holds a dual significance, being both a constant and continuously evolving material entity. Our aim is to observe how spatial construction is formed, and conse­quently, how poetic imagery is built in the poem; we also seek to highlight its similarities with various principles of spatial perception and image const­ruction found in Eastern traditions. It is also noteworthy that in Chinese painting, the bird is a significant artistic motif, and the "birds and flowers" genre emerges as a distinct style within landscape painting. In the first stanza of the poem ,,Spring Evening’’ by Terenti Graneli a model of space is realized that begins with the flutter of a small bird and, passing through the soul of the poet merges with infinity ("its flight crosses the boundary of the soul’’). Within this minimalist yet self-contained image the poem’s entire spatial logic and aesthetic are encoded. The introduction of the soul as a category and its fusion with the image of nature is the foun­dation of a Daoist worldview. It is significant that for the author, the image of the universe necessarily implies the presence of the Other (,,I still remember your address"). In Graneli’s poem the main element of poetic matter is lightness, which serves as an important instrument for creating a spiritual dimension. The effect of lightness is strongly shaped by the linguistic style: the landscape is rendered minimally, with no descriptive details. In Chinese painting this function is fulfilled by the empty background of the painting, which is filled with Dao and seems to merge with the air that fills the universe.This back­ground is not a passive, secondary element but rather an active component, a kind of broad and deep screen upon which the spiritual world of the human being is reflected. The emotional climax of the poem is expressed in the phrase: “I felt some great joy.” The poet, as both witness and participant, becomes immer­sed in and united with a space that gradually expands (“its flight crosses the boundary of the soul’’) and simultaneously strives upward (“the length of the nights reaches the sky”). This all-encompassing ascending dynamic is reve­aled both outside the poet and within his inner world.It is in this very state that the poet’s indescribable (“some’’) joy is born – as the result of a breath synchronized with the universe. In the final line “The moon grew tired of gazing at the earth,” the poet steps beyond the personal dimension of happiness. The image seen by the moon – the earth from above – offers us a cosmic perspective ot the space. In the poem, we simultaneously encounter two oppositional dimen­sions: the cosmic (universal, timeless, distant) and the human (concrete, emo­tional, intimate). These are resolved differently in each instance: in the first image, the flight of the bird appears as a bridge between two distant trees. A strong human sense of attraction is felt in the image of the beloved: despite the temporal and spatial abyss, the poet experiences her in the present. He reconstructs her image and spiritually draws near to her. The nights that reach the sky are overlaid by the poet’s immense joy, as if he fills this boundless space with equally immense emotion. This dyna­mic is transparently reflected in the cyclical structure of the poem, where the final line returns us once again to the initial moment. Such an ending also serves as an illustration of the poem’s philoso­phical worldview, as the brief movement of the bird within the field of visi­on becomes a window through which the eternal can be glimpsed recalling the Eastern principle of seeing the great in the small.” The analogies and observations we have discussed provide a basis for concluding that the correspondence between the world of Terenti Graneli’s poem “Spring Evening” and its associated artistic forms with the Eastern spa­tial model goes beyond mere associative or intuitive parallels and allows us to speak of fundamental structural similarities.
Throughout his lifetime, Galaktion Tabidze appeared on film twelve times – these were either film recordings organized specifically for him or the documentation of important events in which the poet personally participated. Based on sources related to Galaktion Tabidze’s life and work, his rela­ti­onship with cinema can be conditionally divided into three main categories: Galaktion on Screen – newsreels and film recordings produced during his lifetime. In addition to preserving Galaktion’s moving image and voice, these materials serve as valuable cultural heritage of their time. Galaktion’s Attitude Toward Cinematography – insights into this aspect are primarily gleaned from scattered references in his diaries, where the poet shares impressions of the films he watched or comments on events related to cinema. These sources are important for understanding the role cinema played in his everyday life and for reconstructing his taste and sensibility as a film enthusiast. Galaktion’s Creative Work and Cinematic Themes – this category includes poems either dedicated to the theme of cinema or in some way connected to cinematography. These works can be collectively classified as a cinematic cycle within his poetry. The study of these aspects leads to the conclusion that Galaktion Tabidze’s broad creative interests encompassed cinematography in all its dimensions. His engagement with film literature and his habit of under­li­ning specific passages in such texts indicate an intellectual curiosity that extended beyond a purely aesthetic appreciation. The poet participated in dis­cussions surrounding the crisis of cinema, evaluated films, offered recom­mendations to young filmmakers, and even wrote for the screen himself. His diary entries reveal a sustained interest in film; he regularly attended cine­mas and made notes on the films that left a strong impression on him. Galaktion was drawn to both fiction and documentary/scientific cinema. Particular significance is attached to his poems that reflect cinema as a central theme of poetic reflection. These works, created with a focus on film, stand out for their stylistic and thematic interconnections with diverse as­pects of Galaktion's oeuvre and for their sensitivity to broader cultural shifts. In these poems, cinema is not only a metaphor or a symbolic element but often functions as a central thematic axis. Through poetry, Galaktion direc­tly engaged with what was arguably the most expansive and popular art form of the twentieth century.
Woman, Discourse, and Dissent: A Feminist Reading of Babilina Khositashvili's Work
The early 20th century marks a transformative era in Georgian litera­ture, particularly for women writers who emerged not only as literary voices but also as agents of feminist protest. Babilina Khositashvili (1884–1973), a Georgian poet, translator, memoirist, and activist, stands out as a prominent figure whose work embodies the intersection of literature, gender politics, and social critique. This paper explores Khositashvili’s poetic legacy as a pio­neering expression of feminist consciousness within Georgian modernism. Drawing on her poetry, autobiographical writings, and publicistic texts, the study examines how Khositashvili constructs a nuanced portrayal of wo­men’s lived experiences, motherhood, labor, emotional isolation, and politi­cal marginalization, thereby shaping a uniquely Georgian feminist discourse. Khositashvili’s work is characterized by its bold confrontation with patriarchal norms and social injustice. Her poetry often centers on female protagonists – particularly working mothers – whose struggles reflect the socioeconomic conditions of early 20th-century Georgian society. In poems like “The Mother Goes to Work,” the speaker is torn between maternal res­pon­sibility and the economic necessity of labor, expressing deep anxiety, psy­chological exhaustion, and emotional fragmentation. The internal con­flict reaches a climax when the mother character voices fears of harm to her unattended child, highlighting the impossible burdens women face within domestic and public spheres. Through emotionally raw and formally rest­rained verse, Khositashvili foregrounds the mental toll of caregiving under precarious economic conditions. Her poem “To Women” deploys irony and satire to critique gender stereotypes and domestic servitude. The seemingly didactic tone—urging wo­men to “sit at home like hens” – reveals its subversive intent through ab­surd metaphors and caricatures of male privilege, exposing the exploitative dynamic at the heart of traditional family roles. Rather than upholding con­servative values, the poem mocks the societal expectations imposed upon women, turning patriarchal ideology against itself. Khositashvili also envisions feminist transformation through political imagination. In her poem “New Year’s Wish,” she imagines herself as a law­ma­ker who proclaims women’s equality and challenges the societal tendency to reduce women to subordinate roles. The line “Let it become law: woman is equal” serves not only as poetic expression but as an urgent call for legis­lative and structural reform. Outside of poetry, Khositashvili’s essays and memoirs document her intellectual development, participation in feminist movements, and reflec­tions on women’s historical subjugation. Her article “Feminism” articulates a non-antagonistic model of gender equality, promoting collaboration rather than separation between the sexes. Her memoirs provide valuable insights into the sociopolitical climate of her era and the personal sacrifices deman­ded of women who sought education and public engagement. Ultimately, Babilina Khositashvili’s literary work transcends genre boundaries to serve as social document, psychological testimony, and femi­nist manifesto. By giving voice to women’s silent labor, emotional burden, and intellectual aspirations, her poetry challenges the invisibility of female experience and advocates for cultural, legal, and personal emancipation. Her legacy remains relevant in contemporary feminist discourse, illuminating the persistent structures of inequality while offering poetic resistance rooted in historical experience and creative integrity.
Inner Emigration – Paradigms of Literary Discourse
In certain historical periods, under specific political and social condi­tions, writers and artists may be compelled to alter their lifestyles, distance themselves from the state, and withdraw from public life. Such resistance frequently represents a response to a dominant ideology they find unaccep­table. This condition, often referred to as inner emigration, typically emer­ges in the presence of authoritarian or totalitarian regimes. When noncon­formist thinkers face such repressive environments, they may experience psychological or emotional distress, prompting a retreat inward in order to preserve personal integrity, authenticity, and intellectual freedom. Parado­xi­cally, it is during such periods of enforced isolation that many creators pro­duced some of their most valuable works. The paper notes that the term inner emigration has changed meaning depending on the historical context. The concept originated in 1830s France and is associated with the writer Delphine de Girardin (Vicomte de Lonnes). From the 1920s onward, the term began to describe representatives of the progressive intelligentsia in the Soviet Union—particularly writers who oppo­sed the policies of the ruling regime. The paper emphasizes that the frag­mentation of the monolithic Soviet literary space began relatively early in Georgian literature, signaling a cultural shift toward Western literary tra­ditions. While some independent-minded writers and artists were forced into exile under the constraints of Bolshevik cultural policy, many others chose the path of inner emigration rather than compromise with the autho­rities. Such intellectuals rejected the restrictive norms imposed by official ide­ology and instead explored new horizons of thought, producing works intended for future generations and unbound by the political demands of their time. Many of these works remained unpublished during their authors’ lifetimes due to censorship and political repression. The study discusses Notes, Personal Letters (vol. 4) by the writer and cri­tic Otia Pachkoria, a victim of communist persecution, published in 2015 by the Giorgi Leonidze Museum of Georgian Literature. This volume con­tains original, often laconic reflections on literary and philosophical issues, illuminating creative phenomena in both Georgian and world literature. Pachkoria’s observations are noteworthy for their intellectual independence and absence of ideological bias. The paper also examines Geronti Kikodze’s Modern Notes, a documen­tary prose work that chronicles key events in Georgia over the course of roughly forty years – from the restoration of Georgian independence to the death of Stalin. The text remained unpublished during the author’s lifetime and first reached readers only in 1985, with a subsequent edition issued in 2003. Kikodze offers a sober and objective analysis of one of the most diffi­cult periods in twentieth-century Georgian history. In 2015, the Museum of Literature published for the first time the com­plete text of Akaki Beliashvili’s documentary narrative To America via Paris, which records the author’s impressions of his 1960 journey to France and the United States. Beliashvili introduces readers to the landscapes, social environments, cultural achievements, and daily life of the countries he visited, as well as to Georgian émigré communities living abroad. As the article argues, many works created by talented and professional authors under conditions of internal emigration and enforced distancing from an unacceptable reality best capture the intellectual and moral atmos­phere of a difficult era. At the same time, these texts testify to the civic and creative heroism of their authors.
This article responds to Dr. Julieta Gabodze’s polemic letter, where she does not share my view about two verses printed on the paper, that are main­tained at the National Archive of Georgia. The verses are submitted to Censorship Committee by the editors of newspaper Theater in 1886 for issu­ance of publication permit. They are written under the pseudonym Klde-Ka­ne­li. Below this pseudonym we see surname Palavandishvili. Publication of mentioned verses is banned by the Committee. Klde-Kaneli’s poetic woks are stylistically very close to the Nikoloz Baratashvili’s works (one of Klde-Kaneli’s verses is titled as Baratashvili’s poem – I Found the Temple). In my opinion, these verses may have been composed by Baratashvili. According to the memoires of Baratashvili’s contemporaries, young poet has concealed his identity and sent critical verse to Palavandishvili, Tbilisi Governor; he also wrote verses about 1832 plot (plot for liberation of Georgia was betrayed by Palavandishvili and his brother). In the verse I Found the Temple Klde-Kaneli insults certain person and glorifies the heroes which sacrificed themselves to great idea. I suppose that this is the critical verse sent by Baratashvili to Palavandishvili and it is about Georgian plot of 1832; Palavandishvili was known as manuscripts’ collector and probably he kept these verses and later they occurred at the editor’s office of the Theater. It seems editors did not know the author’s identity or they thought that Palavandishvili was the author and submitted the verses to the Committee under the surname of a person, from whose library they came… I cannot share Gabodze’s view that these verses were written by Bara­tashvili’s epigone. Baratashvili’s poetry was not published in his lifetime, but many families had his manuscripts and if anyone decided to write and pub­lish imitation of the poet’s verses, this would be easily opened and re­garded as literary plagiarism... I also cannot offer that the verses were writ­ten after publication of Baratashvili’s poems with the allusion to them, if it were so, the author would mention (e.g. in the epigram) that his verses were response to Baratashvili... Gabodze offered that the author’s pseudonym is Kldekareli (a person from village Kldekari). But the text mentions Klde-Kaneli twice and I think, Gabodze’s view requires better argumentation. Georgian word “Klde” means a rock and Kana supposedly is the location (Cana of Galilee), where Jesus Christ has worked the Miracle (John 2:11). Supposedly, the pseudonym implies that irrespective of the defeat, the author is as firm as Apostle Peter (Peter /“rock”) and he hopes to see the Divine Miracle and his homeland will be liberated. The polemist regards that the verse – I Found the Temple has no poli­tical context and it does not criticize anyone. I mentioned in my article that sections 6 and 9 of the Censorship Committee’s statute prohibit publication of the materials that are politically harmful or insult the State. The verses were banned on the basis of these articles and thus, apparently, they are of political nature. I think there are the reasons to suppose the autor of the mentioned poems is Baratashvili...
Sergei Meskhi – 180 Guardian and Defender of the Georgian Essence
Sergei Meskhi's main concern, his sorrow and pain, the main purpose of his work and existence was his homeland and nation, which had their freedom and dignity taken from them by Russia. Everything he wrote and covered on the pages of “Droeba” was a kind of campaign aimed at awake­ning and bringing his poor nation out of its mental crisis. From a patriotic point of view, he was an invaluable phenomenon – always steady, with a pure conscience and a heart burning with love for his country. Slavery made Georgian people forget and become unaccustomed to many things. Ioane Sabanisdze’s warning in the 8th century, that we were mixed in a foreign nation and had forgotten our ancestral path, was already an established fact in Georgia at the time of Sergei Meskhi. Time and cir­cum­stances put many traditional and national identity-defining events in dan­ger. In the face of the worldview-aesthetic paradigm of the generation of the new era, going against tradition or fighting it was considered the pri­mary sign of the nation’s degeneration. It is precisely this danger that S. Meskhi saw in the life of Georgian people and wrote that there was almost nothing left that connected us with the old life and reminded us of the deeds of our ancestors, as if we wanted to throw away all traditions, get rid of them, and couldn't introduce anything new in their place. Every generation leaves its own style. Sergei Meskhi couldn't adapt to this as well. He was fascinated by everything Georgian, he saw historical context and purpose in it. Fashion is a determinant of the consciousness and taste of society. For S. Meskhi, there was also a discourse expressing the idea of ​​freedom, which was related to fashion, but innovation should be directed towards national culture – he evaluated the tradition and innovation from this perspective. Sergei received his higher education in St. Petersburg, spent 14 months observing life in Europe and had his eyes on America – taking all this into account, he felt well that Georgian life needed innovation. In general, no­velty for him was associated with the degree of freedom and boldness of thought, but in his opinion it should not come at the expense of putting the national identity at risk. At that time, the mediocre everyday life of globali­za­tion was not a threat, but S. Meskhi warned Georgian youth that novelty should be compatible with traditional cultural norms; our main niche should not be lost and we should not be mixed with a foreign nation so much that we would face the threat of extinction.
The Unknown Edition of Baratashvili’s “Bedi Qartlisa” (“Fate of Kartli”)
In the second section of Bedi Kartlisa, King Erekle II converses with Solomon Lionidze and discloses his intentions – he is prepared to “offer his inheritance” to the Russian Tsar so that “he may bring prosperity to Kartli.” The judge’s attempt to dissuade the monarch (“What has happened to us so far that we should sell our freedom?”) proves almost futile, as Erekle’s foremost desire is to “see Georgia in peace.” In the end, the king ostensibly accepts the judge’s advice, yet still declares: “I will take heed of your advice And will silence my heart’s desire, But do not forget my words, That whether today or tomorrow, The Russian Tsar will protect Kartli.” In this context, the king’s compromise appears paradoxical. On the one hand, he renounces his own aspiration (“I will silence my heart’s desire”) and acknowledges the judge’s concern about losing national freedom; on the other, he expresses faith that Russia will soon become Georgia’s protector. If Erekle is confident that Russia will safeguard the country, why is he still troubled? What “heart’s desire” does he suppress? The answer lies in a previously unknown edition of the poem, which was most likely transcribed from one of the poet’s autographs by Dimitri Kipiani in 1847. This manuscript, catalogued as H-1430, is preserved at the Korneli Kekelidze National Centre of Manuscripts. In the earliest version of the poem, the king’s statement differs slightly: “Whether today or tomorrow, the Russian Tsar will seize Kartli.” This alternative reading sheds new light on the king’s anxiety and his political decision. Erekle realizes that peace may come at a heavy cost. He under­stands that Russia’s growing ambitions in the Caucasus entail an inevitable threat of annexation. Therefore, he seeks to act preemptively –preferring a controlled integration to a forced conquest – and to preserve Georgia’s sove­reignty while allying with a more powerful neighbor. Within the poem, it appears as though the king’s defeat at Krtsanisi (1795) led him to sign the Treaty of Georgievsk (1783), an evident historical anachronism. The poet may have intentionally employed this device to un­derscore how “justified” Erekle’s political decision appeared and how “secu­rely” Georgia was later “protected” by its sworn brother, Russia. Currently, two autograph manuscripts of the poem are known (S2517; H-2034), along with two printed sources (Tsiskari, 1858, No. 9; Poems by N. Baratashvili, 1876). In addition, eleven manuscript copies transcribed by various individuals have been identified. A letter from Mikheil Tumani­shvi­li’s archive reveals that in 1852, Vakhtang Eristavi also produced a copy of the poet’s works. It is noteworthy that none of the known autograph manuscripts, printed sources, or later copies reflect this particular textual variant. The present study aims to determine the authenticity of Kipiani’s manuscript of Bedi Kartlisa, which, unlike other versions, exhibits numerous substantive, lexical, grammatical, and structural deviations. By comparing Kipiani’s manuscript with other autograph copies – texts later revised by Baratashvili – we seek to establish the rationale for these alterations: whe­ther they stemmed from self-censorship or represent the poet’s final creative intention. It is significant that the principal twentieth-century editions of Bara­tashvili’s works (1922, 1939, 1945) were unaware of Kipiani’s manuscript. Although the editions of 1968 and 1972 do mention it, they fail to note its textual variations. It remains intriguing why such prominent editors as Pavle Ingorokva and Ivane Lolashvili overlooked this version. Was it due to fear of censorship, or was the manuscript dismissed as unauthentic, with its revi­sions not attributed to the poet himself? If the latter, who introduced these changes, and for what reason would Kipiani copy an altered text while still ascribing it to Baratashvili? Baratashvili was a frequent guest at Dimitri Kipiani’s home. As Kipi­ani’s memoirs attest, young intellectuals often gathered there; it was within this circle that “Tato’s poetic talent developed – here he first read his poems, received comments, and later presented revised versions.” It is plausible that during this period, Kipiani obtained an early draft of Bedi Kartlisa. In 1846, Baratashvili’s friends initiated a project to publish his works, leading to the collection and transcription of his manuscripts. Kipiani was likely involved in this process – copying the poem into his personal album and subsequently handing over the autograph. It seems highly improbable that Kipiani arbitrarily modified the poem. First, he was known for his scrupulousness and sense of responsibility. Se­cond, as a representative of the Georgian nobility integrated into the Russian administration, he viewed Georgia’s alliance with Russia not as a loss of independence, but as an opportunity for national advancement – economic, political, and cultural. Finally, it is implausible that a figure such as Dimitri Kipiani would introduce extensive lexical, grammatical, or structural chan­ges to Baratashvili’s text. It is noteworthy that most of the alternative readings found in Kipi­ani’s copy correspond to the readings of the autograph manuscripts and their derivative printed editions – except for the single phrase “will seize.” A comparative textual analysis of Kipiani’s handwritten copy of Bedi Kartlisa (No. 1430) with the known autograph manuscripts, manuscript co­pies, and printed versions leads to the following conclusion:The alternative reading in Kipiani’s manuscript profoundly reshapes the ideological trajec­tory of the poem. Consequently, we consider this version to represent one of the poem’s earliest authorial editions. The numerous lexical, grammatical, and structural divergences from other versions suggest that Kipiani’s manus­cript may have been transcribed from a now-lost autograph.It appears that sometime after composing the poem in 1839, Baratashvili’s political views evolved. In 1843, he revised Bedi Kartlisa twice, at a time when he had al­ready written The Grave of King Erekle (1843) and The War of the Geor­gi­ans (1844) – works that unambiguously affirm his positive attitude toward Erekle’s political choice. Thus, the poet’s final creative intention is reflected in the later autog­raph manuscripts of Bedi Kartlisa, revised in 1843.This previously unknown edition of the poem will appear in the first volume of the forthcoming two-volume academic collection of Baratashvili’s works, under the section “Alternative Editions”.
The year 1898 marked 100 years since the death of King Erekle II. Ilia and Akaki dedicated several letters to the hero king on the anniversary of the king's death. This date was solemnly celebrated by the Georgian society. In his "Collection" Akaki Tsereteli published an article "February 22" which in connection with the Treaty of Georgievsk puts forward the most important political issue through the mouth of Erekle II – “"Are they jus­tified ?!" and he himself answered: jus-ti-fied! Why did Akaki raise this ques­tion? He knew that the part of society took the king’s decision ambi­guously. Already in 1901, after the so-called celebration of the incorporation of Georgia into the Russian Empire, the poet wrote the letter “The Truth”, which, due to the acute national-political nature, became a victim of censorship of all eras and which has not been published to this day. And this should not be surprising, since Akaki sharply and without embarrassment threw the hard truth of a centuries-old Russification policy to everybody – the nation, the clergy and the enemy. In the article, Akaki once again answered the question of the distressed king – Are they justified? The author, as an experienced publicist, correctly assessed the steps taken by Erekle II and Solomon I regarding Russia, their contribution, all the reasons that made the King to put Georgia under the protection of Russia. These were: the treacherous policy of the Tsarist government, to which were added the endless invasions of external enemies, the domestic rift, the di­sorder, betrayal, an old age of Erekle and his disease. The "Truth" justly states that the “treaty” envisaged quite different conditions, and what we see today was not Erekle's wish. He wanted the kingdom to be independent and subordinate to Russia only in foreign policy, but as soon as she entered Georgia, she violated all conditions and turned to violence. When evaluating the king, Akaki states that Erekle II restored Georgia, which was on the verge of decline, and listed the titles held by the king, which in itself indicate the success of the then Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti. In connection with the mentioned date, Ilia Chavchavadze published two editorials in the Iveria (No. 8 and No. 39): “Liturgy and memorial service for commemoration of the soul of King Erekle” and “On the 100th anniversary of King Erekle’s death”. According to an unpublished material stored in the Literary Museum (№859-1) after the 100th anniversary of Georgia’s annexation to Russia, the writer stated that the incorporation of Georgia with Russia meant the death of the Georgian nation itself. In both of these editorials, the author of this statement greatly appreciated the hero king’s contribution and also quoted G. Orbeliani’s words that Georgia had been entombed together with king’s death. In addition, Ilia used the quotes from folk verses and concluded that “King Erekle II was an iron door for Georgia”, his death made his country accessible to the enemies. Ilia's letters are full of gratitude for the merits of the king and the demand to take practical steps to immortalize his name. Ilia’s and Akaki's letters answered many important political issues both on Georgian-Russian relations and the activities of Erekle II.
Several Detective Episodes from Aleksandre Chavchavadze’s Life
The biography of some writers appears to us as a chronicle of great political and state events. This becomes particularly noticeable when this or that episode of the creator's life relates to the struggle for a great humani­tarian idea or to save the country and involves self-sacrificial action. Literary history is well acquainted with the life of English poet George Byron. It is also known that he directly participated in the Italian people's struggle against Austrian rule, then the poet went to Greece to participate in the Greek people's national liberation struggle, where he became ill and died. The life of Hungarian poet Sandor Petofi remains a symbol of heroism and self-sacrifice. He was one of the leaders of the national liberation strugg­le directed against Austrian rule and died on the battlefield, so that his com­rades could not even find his body. In both the first and second cases, the biographers of these poets speci­fically note these episodes of their lives and give very high praise to their decisions. We think it is also admirable that our romantic poet Alexandre Chav­cha­vadze participated in the national liberation struggle in his youth, regardless of how his life continued afterward, how faithful he remained to his youthful aspirations. Unfortunately, today's Georgian reader somehow passes indifferently by this episode of the poet's life, as if it was an ordinary story - an eighteen-year-old young man from the highest aristocratic family fleeing from home and joining the rebellious Mtiulian units. Geronti Qiqodze wrote: "Alexandre fled from his father and sided with the rebellious Mtiulians, who were led by Prince Pharnaoz." However, we do not know what the researcher meant by "fleeing from his father" - should these words be understood literally or does it mean leaving home without permission; was this protest momentary or was there some internal confron­tation between father and son, between Garsevan and Alexandre Chavcha­vadze; was fleeing to Mtiulians caused by patriotic feeling or did youthful romanticism predominate more in Alexandre's decision. It should also be said that this incident did not pass without a trace in Alexandre Chavchavadze's life. The young poet was properly punished for his actions. His creative work was often inspired precisely by this episode. Many of the poet's poems directly echo his romantic step. It is true that years later, in a report sent to the emperor, the poet "repented" this youthful step: "I left my parents and fled... This was, I think, in 1803, under the bad influence of some misguided youth I sided with Prince Pharnaoz who was in Mtiuleti at that time," however, the poet's sub­sequent life and especially his creative work can be considered precisely as an echo and a kind of justification of that "wrong step." This is precisely what we will try to prove in this article. For this pur­pose, let us study more deeply Alexandre Chavchavadze's life itself, this episode of his biography, as well as the entire history of Garsevan Chavcha­vadze's diplomatic service, his role in Georgian-Russian relations and possible participation in the entire process shrouded in secrecy until the day of the abolition of the monarchy in Georgia. The reader will undoubtedly be interested in Alexandre Chavchavadze's personal relationship with the princes of the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti as well as the causes and goals of the Mtiulian rebellion.
The Relationship between Alexander and Grigol Orbelianis and the Creation of the Poem „Sadgegrdzelo“ („Toast“)
The House of Orbeliani, one of the most powerful and influential feu­dal nobility in Kartli, played a consistently significant role in the poli­tical, military, ecclesiastical, and social life of the region. In addition to holding high-ranking political positions – including military commanders, court dig­nitaries, household officials, judges, etc. -members of the Orbeliani family made substantial contributions to Georgian culture as writers, intellectuals, and scientists. The Orbelianis frequently appear in the artistic and and non-fiction works of major Georgian writers and public figures, such as Nikoloz Baratashvili, Grigol Orbeliani, Alexander Chavchavadze, Alexander Orbeli­ani, Solomon Dodashvili, Platon Ioseliani and others. They are featured as characters, addressees and dedicatees in their diaries, personal letters, me­moirs… As such, research into their biographies, activities, and creative le­ga­­cies remains an important and timely area within the broader field of Georgian literary history. The presented article is devoted to the study of the relationship bet­ween two great representatives of the Orbelian family, prominent figures of the 19th century, Georgian romantic writers Alexander (Puplia) Orbeliani (1802-1869) and Grigol Orbeliani (1804-1883), whose life and work have been thoroughly studied by Georgian literary scholars and historians (I. Me­u­nargia, Ak. Gatserelia, J. Chumburidze, I. Evgenidze, R. Chkheidze, N. Va­kha­nia, T. Jologua...), but our research is based on newly discovered archival materials and recently published scholarly editions. In particular, the re­search draws on the five-volume academic edition of Aleksander Orbeliani’s collected works (published in 2023), as well as the academic editions of Grigol Orbeliani’s personal letters prepared within the framework of the multivolume of Epistolary Legacy of Georgian Writers and Public figures of the 19th–20th Centuries (2012–2024). These publications have made accessible and scientifically processed a substantial body of texts that had previously been available only in archives, thereby laying the foundation for new lite­rary, historical, and cultural research. With the presented research, we have tried to present various (fami­lial, collegial, professional...) aspects of the relationship between two promi­nent Georgian writers and public figures of the same noble family of the 19th century, Aleksandre Orbeliani and Grigol Orbeliani. Although Aleksander Orbeliani was not a close friend of Grigol Orbeliani nor a frequent addressee of his personal letters, their relationship nonetheless reflects mutual respect, recognition, and trust, despite the ideological and biographical divergences that shaped their individual paths. Special attention is given to their literary collaboration, particularly the history of the creation of Grigol Orbeliani’s famous poem “Toast” (Sad­ghegr­dzelo). The article also proposes a revised dating of one of Aleksander Orbeliani’s personal letters, offering further insight into their intellectual and historical context.
The Formation of Georgian Feminist Discourse
The first wave of feminism, which was formed in the West from the se­cond half of the 19th century, aimed at the political, social, and economic eman­cipation of women, the rethinking of traditional gender roles, and cultural stereotypes, was also responded to by fiction, mainly by female authors. Simultaneously with the emergence and development of Western feminism, the generation of the sixties in Georgia activated the idea of ​​the Europeanization of Georgian culture and the modernization of literary and social thought. One of the strategic directions of this process was the struggle for women's civil rights and support for their creative emancipation. One of the themes of the publicistic works of Ilia, Akaki, Giorgi Eristavi, Niko Nikoladze, Archil Jorjadze, and others was the importance of women's self-realization. Based on the study of the journalistic letters, personal correspondence, autobiographical notes, and public activities of Georgian women authors active in the second half of the 19th century and the 10s of the 20th century, and at the same time, an analysis of Ekaterine Gabashvili's play "The Wing­breaker", we can conclude that Georgian women used all public platforms to voice their opinions. Although a large part of the problems raised by women writers (desacralization of women, misinterpretation of women's mental abi­lities and their psycho-emotional nature, unfair distribution of gender roles) remained unresolved, the struggle of women ended with concrete results in the late 10s of the 20th century. After the establishment of the First Democ­ratic Republic of Georgia, 17 women ran for office in the Constituent Assem­bly elections held in 1919 on behalf of various parties, of whom 5 – Minadora Ordzhonikidze-Toroshelidze (1879-1967), Elisabeth Nakashidze-Bolkvadze (1885-1937), Eleonora Ter-Parsegova-Makhvidze (1875-date of death unk­nown), Anna (Ola) Sologashvili (1882-1937), Kristine (Chito) Sharashidze (1887-1973) – were elected members. Two of them - Elisabeth Nakashidze-Bolkvadze and Anna (Ola) Sologashvili – were shot by the Soviet authorities in 1937 on charges of counter-revolutionary activities and "chauvinistic sen­timents". The actualization of gender themes by Georgian women simulta­neous­ly with the European feminist school (and in some cases even earlier) should be considered a most important event for the history of Georgian fe­minism, an organic part of which is the gender policy of the Soviet Union and its literary reflection.
The poem “Nightfall on Mtatsminda” is a structurally complex lyrical text built upon the alternation of the narrator's and the experiencer's voices. The analysis is based on the identification of schematas and their correspon­ding cognitive scripts (Peter Huhn), which help to establish the principles of plot construction and to identify underlying mental processes. Two core thematic templates are revealed in the poem: Escaping sorrow and melancholy through immersion in nature Recalling past experiences for the purpose of their narrative reconstruction The first template aligns with the philosophy of Romanticism, where nature serves as a meditative space spiritually akin to the human self, as both are seen to emanate from the Absolute (Schelling). The second is rooted in cognitive theory and relates to mechanisms of autobiographical memory. These templates help the reader determine the poem’s narrative structure and understand how episodic memory is reconstructed through narration. The narrator not only describes a specific episode but also reflects the men­tal processes related to the act of remembering, which gives the poem dis­cursive depth and creates a high level of narrativity. The experiencer func­tions on the story level, while the narrator operates on the discourse level. Their alternation shapes the dynamic of narration and simultaneously ref­lects a lyrical process of self-reflection. Ultimately, the analysis reveals that the text embodies complex intellectual processes – an effort to define perso­nal identity through memory. Considering the lyrical genre’s fragmentary and segmented nature, it is difficult to sharply distinguish between narrator and character, but the use of templates and scripts aids this interpretation. Based on the theoretical foundations of Romanticism and cognitive science, the poem is revealed to express a process of remembrance, where the re­ca­lled event is vital for the narrator's identity. The narrative act of remem­bering serves the function of preserving this significant memory within the “archive” of personal identity.
The Suthor, the Text and the Reader, According to Davit Guramishvili’s “Davitiani”
The author’s spatiotemporal vision is outlined on the background of the relation between the real and the eternal. The empirical present is opp­re­ssed and severe. It requires perfection, transformation and spiritual con­tent. According to the author, this is achieved solely by means of literary creativity. Like the creator of the world, Guramishvili creates and forms a new artistic reality. In the poem, the author communicates with the reader in a self-confident manner which resembles Rustaveli’s style: ”My name being Davit Guramishvili, I have told “Davitiani...“. The almighty author of “Davitiani” knows from the very start that he is writing the poem for the salvation of the reader. According to Davit Guramishvili, there must be mutual assistance bet­ween the author and the reader. Both should feel responsibility and ob­li­gation. The didactic character of the poem proves that the reader is inferior to the author. They occupy different positions. According to “Davitiani”, all the readers are an object of the author’s care and aid. It is impossible to fulfill the creative mission without the reader’s re­adiness and participation. The reader created and educated by Guramisvhili should be the basis for the author’s salvation and immortality. Guramishvili managed to use poetry for achieving the communion between his pain­ful/sinful life and God. The creator/man could not have done anything more important than sharing his experience with others. He has been saved by the book, and now he has to assist the world with the book; he feels and predicts this intuitively. According to Guramisvhili, it is the reader who “makes a book”, granting life and vitality to a literary work and turning it into the book which is read. “I am asking the wise man to baptize my orphan child“ (10. 11). Guramishvili introduces the concept of baptizing the text. This is a supreme expression of the perfect union between the author and the reader. The communion of readers of every epoch with the text i.e. baptizing of the text, is, according to Guramishvili, the basis for the immortality of the text. In “Davitiani”, the word “baptizing” may have a religious meaning, but it may also mean revision, editing, correction. In the epoch of religious crisis and depreciation of values, Guramish­vili finds himself in the situation where literature should be based on the idea of human salvation; hence, his words should express the meaning of logos. Guramishvili is a powerful author. He has the resilience of Biblical fathers. He is uncompromising and full of faith. This helps him influence the readers and direct their thoughts, dreams and emotions. Guramishvili thinks that, due to his lack of wisdom and “scarcity of knowledge”, the text needs to be baptized. He distinguishes a special cate­gory of the reader – “the wise man” i.e. the reader that will appreciate the text. Thanks to such readers, Guramishvili will fulfill the mission of revision of the text, its “baptizing”, “converting” and “turning it into a Georgian text“. It is interesting to find out what kind of editing Guramishvili expects from “the wise man”, i.e. the reader. They belong to different categories. The author describes his work as follows: “translation” i.e. commenting and exp­laining of the text implies revealing of its covert idea. This is what he requires from the readers of “Davitiani”: “Grasp the idea of the fable, tran­slate it for my sake!/I have placed a grain inside the loaf of the Georgian bread!“ (68. 373). “The wise man” should revise the text from the religious-theological viewpoint: ”If the text contains something of alien faith, let him translate it into the Georgian faith“; ”If I tell lies, let him transform the text into the truth/may nothing be untrue and unfair“ [10. 11]; ”This book should be used in purity, let no one smear it with impurities!“ (64. 350). The colla­boration between the author and “the wise man” is a kind of allusion on the editing activities carried out by the metaphrasts. The words “turning into a Georgian text” mean genuine, untold truth. With these words, Guramishvili expresses the world vision of the epoch when the terms “Christian” and “Georgian” were identical and Christianity was the key feature of the Georgian national self-portrait. Ilia Chavchavadze wrote: “even nowadays, in the entire South Caucasus, “Georgian” and “Chris­tian” are synonyms. When the Caucasians want to say that someone was converted into Christianity, they say: “He became a Georgian”.
The Principle of Provoking Astonishment in the Poetry of Georgian Baroque Authors
The 17th century was a period of significant cultural and artistic tran­sformation, characterized by the collision of traditional and emerging forms. This cultural shift gave rise to a diverse and eclectic style in various artistic disciplines, including painting, architecture, and literature. The prevailing ar­­tistic ideas and aesthetic perspectives of the time underwent a transfor­ma­tion, giving way to a new and distinctive style known as Baroque. A foun­dational principle of the prevailing European Baroque culture is the broa­dening of the aesthetic function of literature, which is founded on figurative thinking and the integration of diverse artistic forms within the context of a single work (verbal text, fine art, music). The Baroque pe­riod was distingui­shed by a pursuit of astonishment through imagination, wherein elements of strangeness, unusualness, unconventionality, and bizar­reness played a pivotal role in its aesthetic principles. As demonstrated in the following ana­lysis, Georgian literature of the 17th-18th centuries serves as a prime example of the aforementioned general principles. The present work examines such poetic texts in Georgian Baroque poetry that surprise and amaze the reader due to their unusual form and multiplicity of mea­nings. They are as follows: ‘rvuli’, pattern poem, acrostic, telestic, and the cryptogram. The present article concerns precisely such poetic texts, which are perceived simultaneously by sight and sound. These texts are built on the principle of wit and aim to stunning their readers. Sulkhan Saba Orbeliani’s verse form ‘rvuli’ (რვული) is a four-line poem that exhibits eight identical internal and external rhymes: four before the caesura and four at the end. In the Baroque context, the ‘rvuli’ verse form is notable for its capacity to en­gender multiple interpretations, aligning with the Baroque era's fascination with poetic play, sometimes using the principle of mirror reflection, popular in Baroque poetics. This period was characterized by an inclination among authors to captivate, amaze, and surprise their readers with elements of uni­queness and innovation in their poetry. The poem's original structure enab­les its reading and interpretation in three distinct ways while preserving its content, thus resulting in three variants of a single poem. In this manner, the Baroque author's objective to astonish his audience with innovation is accomplished. Poems of this nature, which encompass two, three, or more reading options, are based on the principle of play. Archil II's "Verse Rotating Like Grinding Wheel", is a particularly no­teworthy example of a pattern poem. Verse consists of single line – “This is ba­­sed on a parable about Vanity” and in ten-strophe verse this one line is repeated 44 times with different order of the words in the line. Archil II has effectively transformed the poem, infusing it with a novel dimension of mo­vement and rotation. This transformation is characterized by a dynamic in­terplay of velocity, with the pace of rotation varying across the verses. This dynamic interplay, when graphically represented, evokes the sensation of acceleration, a phenomenon that mirrors the prevailing scientific interest du­ring the Baroque era. Moreover, poet utilizes a circle, made of this single line, rendered in red ink, to crown the poem, thereby imbuing his religious-philosophical notion with an additional visual dimension, one that further enhances its impact, thus elevating this pattern poem to the status of a splen­did exemplar of Baroque aesthetics. Other notable verse forms include the acrostic, telestic, and the cryp­tog­ram verse, which are distinguished by their unusualness and ornamen­tation characteristic of the Georgian Baroque. Archil II's seven iambics, cha­racterized by profound religious sentiment, are embellished with acrostics and teletics. Furthermore, the acrostics and teletics of all seven iambics, when read sequentially, form an independent poetic text. The "recognition" or "decoding" moment is a conceptual element of the Baroque style. In Georgian Baroque poetry, Vakhtang VI was fascinated by this type of cryptogram, puzzle. The characteristic "unusualness" and quick wit of the Baroque period are the combination that underlies the works cre­ated on the principle of the aesthetics of surprise of this era. In the context of Georgian Baroque poetry, a significant category of po­etic works is grounded in this principle, thereby offering a discernible glim­pse into the aesthetic predilections and intellectual inclinations of Georgian authors and their readership during this historical era. These po­ems are characterized by their intricate structures, unusual and enigmatic ele­ments, and their capacity to elude facile interpretation.
"The Good Devil" by The Man in a Panther Skin
The Man in a Punther Skin mentions Eros from Greek mythology. In one episode, he (Eros) is Love as a person. In the second episode, he is the feeling of love. This reference is based on Plato's Symposium, where Eros is presented as a good demon or a wise demon. The context in which Rustav­eli speaks of love as a good devil is unclear to researchers and translators. In this context, Avtandil speaks to Tariel, who is depressed because of his Inconsolable love: Who has heard of a good devil without evil? Researchers have understood the poem's devil (ეშმაკი) in a modern sense. In the old Georgian translation of the Gospel, the Greek demon (δαίμον) is translated by the word devil (ეშმაკი). Therefore, according to Rustaveli’s philosophical source, Plato’s Symposium, the text should be understood as follows: in every good devil (in love), there is evil. And the point of view, that in every good devil there is evil, is the position of Neoplatonic philosophy. Dionysius the Areopagite, The Divine Names (4,34): „...And, as for the demons, what they are is both from the Good, and good. But their evil is from the declension from their own proper goods, and a change – the weakness, as regards their identity…”. Rustaveli is based on the translation by Ephraim Mtsire of The Divine Names, where demon (δαίμον) is translated as devil (ეშმაკი), as in The Man in a Panther-Skin.
The fourth line of the tenth stanza of The Knight in the Panther’s Skin’s prologue – “samta perta saqebelta lamis leqsta unda vlena” – has al­ways sparked diverse opinions among commentators. In manuscripts and printed editions, this line can be read in different ways. The most significant variation is the alternation between „vlena“ and „levna“ which modifies the meaning of the line to some degree. However, researchers have primarily focused on decoding “samta perta.” Taken in its literal sense, “three” refers to the poem’s three principal protagonists: Tariel, Avtandil, and Fridon. In the dictionaries and commentaries accompanying editions of the poem, “three” is interpreted allegorically as the Holy Trinity; the beloved’s beauty, virtue, and merciful heart; the interplay of celestial rays, a gleaming shimmer; the rainbow; three kinds of poetry; the three voices of song, and more. Some scholars interpret “peri” (“color”) as a noun (which, apart from its direct meaning, may denote shape, genus, essence, face, or hero), while others understand it as meaning “fitting,” “appropriate,” or “deserved.” Nana Gonjilashvili expresses the view that “three colors” allegorically represent the loftiest ideals: specifically, Tariel stands for love, Avtandil for faith, and Fridon for hope. Yet the interpretation of “samta perta” alone does not unequivocally elucidate the entire line’s meaning. For some reason, less attention is paid to the word “lamis”. What does “lamis” (“hlamis”) mean? it is a verb meaning “desires, intends.” Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani defines “lamis” as “(h)nebavs” (“he/she wishes”). The root of the verb is “lama.” According to I. Abuladze’s definition, it signifies “wanting, intent, desire”. In Akaki Shanidze’s Lexicon of The Knight in the Panther’s Skin, we read: “shelama: shehlamis, moun­do­mebs, daupierebs” (“he/she sets out to do, makes up one’s mind to do”). We encounter this verb in precisely this sense in the tenth stanza of the poem. It is noteworthy how people of earlier centuries read and understood this line. An echo of it can be heard in one of the stanzas by an unknown continuator of the poem: “I entreat Thee, O Most High, Thou who discernest all hearts, Grant me strength and succor, O Lord of rightful dominion, We desire to praise those heroes, with praises befitting them, First Tariel, and thereafter his brothers.” Clearly, this interpolator takes “samta perta” to mean “that which is fi­tting” for Tariel and his sworn brothers, while “gvinda” (“we wish”) is a tran­­s­formation of Rustaveli’s verb “lamis” (“he/she desires, intends”). Now the question arises: according to Rustaveli’s line, who wishes to compose (praise and adorn) “samta perta”? We must search for the verb’s subject in the preceding line – “miajet vin, khortsta datsva kmaris, mitses sulta lkhena.” The subject of the verb “mitses” (“let him/her grant”) is the poet’s adored Queen Tamar (for whom the poet’s heart is enraptured). She desires (“lamis”) that the poet create a laudation worthy of the “three.” If in this line we read “lamis” as a verb (“he/she desires, intends”), then it makes sense that the line before it should end with a comma rather than a period, and that there should also be a comma after “lamis.” With this pun­ctuation arrangement, taking into account the caesura, the line aligns pre­cisely with the preceding one. In the analytical text, the last, rhyming word Levna/Leva is the reading preserved in the manuscripts of the poem. It is interpreted as exhaustion, exhaustion (of poems) (Vakhtang VI, Teimuraz Bagrationi). This is also exp­lained in dictionaries. I think the "leva of poems" - to exhaust, to spend – in­di­cates the large volume of the poem. „Leva“– is found in the prologue itself, related to "poem" (13). In addition, „Leva“ and its derived verb forms are found in many types. The choice of the rhyming word for the analytical line – Levna/ Leva/ Vlena – is the prerogative of the editors of the subsequent academic edition of "The Rider in the Panther's Skin". In any case, if we read the word “lamis” in the given text as a verb (He/She has a desire.), then it is logical that there should be a comma (and not a period) after the previous text, and a comma should be placed after “lamis”: “Samta perta sakebelta lamis, lexta onda leva”. Therefore, the analytical text reads: [Queen Tamar] wants to create a suitable eulogy (poems of praise) for the "Trinity" (Holy Trinity), she wants to devote a lot of poems to it, that is, create a great work. This reading of the line is entirely consistent with and reinforces the main point of the prologue's discourse on "affection": that the poet's primary goal is to convey divine love.
Religious-Cultural Concepts of the Hagiographic Topos of “The Life of Grigol Khandzteli”. Discourse of Russian Translations
This article is dedicated not only to the difficult issue of adequately conveying the historical-cultural contexts of translations of Georgian hagi­og­raphic monuments, but also to the etymology of a particular word in the monument under consideration and what meaning the translator prefers. Despite the fact that hagiographic texts are fulfilled with clichés and Russian language itself seems to be well processed on parts of orthodox-theological concepts, still serious defects can be detected in within translated texts on Russian. In our opinion this is caused by several factors: Consciously, made mistake. Inappropriate scientific level or subject approach. Context understanding problem on native old Georgian language. Translators incompetence. Perhaps nobody has paid attention so far to one passage from Niko Mars discovered, published and translated to Russian text “Life of Grigol Xan­dzteli” but this presented part of Russian translation Xandzta monastery ty­picon part in particular, casts doubt on the Tao Klarjeti monasteries chal­cedonic orientation problem, as on such serious matter of monastery mode of life like, no chalcedonic reglamentation referring fasting.
Women in Christian and Mazdean Canonical Traditions (5th century)
ქალისა და მამაკაცის თანასწორობას, რომელიც ადრექრისტი­ანული სამყაროსთვის სრულიად ახალი და უცხო კონცეფცია იყო, „შუშანიკის წამების“ ერთ ეპიზოდს უკავშირდება. აქ ვკითხულობთ, რომ ქრისტიანი ვარსქენ პიტიახში, თავისი მეუღლის, შუშანიკისგან, ფარულად იღებს მაზდეანობას და მეორე ცოლსაც გამოითხოვს „სპარ­სთა მეფისაგან“. „შუშანიკის წამების“ ქართული ტექსტის მიხედვით, ეს „ცოლი“ შეიძლება ყოფილიყო სპარსეთის მეფის ასული, სომხური ვარიანტით – სიდედრი, ხოლო ვრცელი სომხური ვერსიით – თვით ვარსქენის ქალიშვილი. მოხმობილი ფრაგმენტი წარმოშობს რამდენიმე მნიშვნელოვან კითხვას: რა ადგილი ეკავა ქალს ქრისტიანობასა და მაზდეანობაში? არსებობდა თუ არა ამ რელიგიებში მრავალცოლიანობა? დაიშვებოდა თუ არა სისხლის აღრევა? რას ფიქრობდა V საუკუნის ქართლის ორი მთავარი რელიგიის კანონიკური წიგნები – „დიდი სჯულის კანონი“ და „ავესტა“– ამ საკითხებზე? ცხადია, ყოველი ტექსტი დაკავშირებულია არა მხოლოდ თავისი ეპოქის, არამედ წარსულის მითოსურ, რელიგიურ თუ კულტურულ-ესთეტიკურ აზროვნებასთან. აქედან გამომდინარე, კვლევის მიზანი, გაანალიზდეს ქალის სოციალური, რელიგიური და სამართლებრივი მდგომარეობა V საუკუნის ქართლში და პასუხი გაეცეს ჩვენ მიერ დას­მულ კითხვებს, ეპოქებისა და კულტურული კონტექსტებისგან მოწყ­ვე­ტით ვერ განხორციელდება. ზოროასტრიზმის მთავარი წიგნის, „ავესტას“, კანონთა ანალიზი გვაჩვენებს, რომ ზარათუშტრა თავის ჭეშმარიტ მიმდევრებს, კაცებს თუ ქალებს, nā gәnā vā -ს, ანუ თანასწორს უწოდებს, მაზდეანთა ქორ­წინება მონოგამიურად ითვლება, კატეგორიულად იკრძალება ოჯახის შექმნა ნათესავებს შორის და ა. შ. თუმცა წესები ალბათ ირღვეოდა კი­დეც ან დროთა განმავლობაში სხვა ინტერპრეტაციით ვრცელდებოდა. ამას ადასტურებს ე. წ. იშობოხტის სამართლის კოდექსი (VIIIს.), რომ­ლის თანახმადაც, ზარათუშტრა „შეაჩვენეს დედასთან, დასთან და ასულთან შეუღლების წესის შემოღებისთვის“. მაზდეანობაში მსგავსი წესის არსებობა ვრცელი სომხური რე­დაქ­ციის ავტორისათვის, სავარაუდოდ, ცნობილი უნდა ყოფილიყო, თუმ­ცა არც ზარათუშტრასა და ვარსქენის შესახებ შემორჩენილი ინ­ფორ­მაცია, არც პიტიახშის სასტიკი ბუნება თუ პოლიტიკური გავლე­ნე­ბისადმი სწრაფვა არ იძლევა იმის მტკიცების საფუძველს, რომ ვარს­ქე­ნის მიერ რელიგიის ცვლილება საკუთარი ქალიშვილის ცოლად შერ­თვას დაუკავშირდეს (შესაძლებელია ეს ინფორმაცია არმენოფი­ლურ ტენდენციადაც მივიჩნიოთ). როგორ უმკლავდებოდა მსგავს პრობლემებს ქრისტეს ეკლესია? ქრისტიანობა ქალისა და მამაკაცის თანასწორობის ქადაგებს და ღვთის წინაშე მათ თანაბარ ღირსებას აღიარებს. ეს სწავლება აისახა მსოფლიო და ადგილობრივ საეკლესიო კრებებზე შემუშავებულ საკანონმდებლო ნორმებში, რომლებიც შესულია „დიდ სჯულისკანონში“. ამავე კანონე­ბით მკაცრად იგმობა ცოლქმრული ღალატი, მრავალცოლიანობა, ახ­ლად შობილ გოგონათა მკვლელობის პრაქტიკა, სისხლის აღრევა (მაგ. ბასილი დიდის 67-ე კანონი) და სხვ. ასევე მეტად საინტერესო ცნო­ბებს გვაწვდის კანონები ქალთა შესახებ, რომელთაც საეკლესო სა­მართალი „ჩუეულებას“, „უწერელ წესს“ უწოდებს და ძალით კანონთა თანასწო­რად აცხადებს. ტექსტისა და მაზდეანურ-ქრისტიანული კანონიკური ტრადი­ცი­ის ანალიზი ადასტურებს, რომ V საუკუნის ქართლში მცხოვრებ ქრის­ტიან ქალთა საზოგადოებრივ და რელიგიურ ყოფაზე ჯერ კიდევ ძლი­ერია წარმართობის გავლენა, თუმცა ნელ-ნელა მკვიდრდება ქრისტი­ანუ­ლი ცხოვრების წესი და სამართლებრივი ნორმები, რომლებიც მოგ­ვიანებით ზოგიერთ მაზდეანურ კანონზეც აისახა.