"Literary Researches" is an annual scholarly review published by Shota Rustaveli Institute of Georgian Literature and includes topics and problems relevant to the modern literary criticism, as well as unpublished results of important research. The mission of the journal is the internationalization of Kartvelian Studies - full integration of Georgian literature into world literary and cultural processes. Articles are published in three languages (Georgian, English, Russian), Articles are peer reviewed.
Shota Rustaveli Institute of Georgian Literature
Modern Literary Interpretations of the Medea Myth From Marginalization to Dominance (Krista Wolf's novel: "Medea – Voices" and Nino Kharatishvili's play "My and Your Heart [Medea]")
The article presents modern interpretations of the Medea myth based on Nino Kharatishvili's play "My Heart [Medea]" and Christa Wolf's novel "Medea-Voices". In particular, using a compa­rative analysis, it is discussed how different passages or motifs of the Medea myth change within the fra­mework of two different texts and, accordingly, how Medea's identity is constructed/formed. In the position of the male characters of both novels (Creon, Jason, Acama), we can examine the masculine perspective, accor­ding to which, the woman was primarily understood as a being obedient to the will of the man, with a strictly defined role and behavioral models. In both texts, Medea disrupts the dominant discourse. Medea's identity as a vengeful and destructive woman, in contrast to Christa Wolff's novel, is preserved in Nino Khara­tish­vili's play. Her confron­tation with Creon and Jason's punishment are perceived by the patriarchal system not as an attempt to protect dignity and restore justice, but as an irrational and spontaneous act of revenge by a desperate woman, which is why the system tries to demonize and marginalize her. From a feminist pers­pective, Me­dea's struggle is perceived as a successful attempt to move the female character from the periphery to the center and to dominate men in a stric­tly defined socio-cultural role and free herself from masculine constraints. In Christa Wolff's novel, Medea experiences complete frustra­tion after exposing the system. Medea becomes a victim of sexism, brutal political interests and repression of the system.
Society Shevardeni as a Culturological Phenomenon and One of Geronti Kikodze’s Works
The work provides discussion of Sokol Society (sokol – falcon) estab­lished in Czechia by Miroslav Tyrš and Jindřich Fügner and similar public movement named Shevardeni (meaning of this Georgian word is also falcon) established by Giorgi Nikoladze, Giorgi Egnatashvili, Gaioz Berelashvili, Davit Javrishvili, Tamar Nikoladze etc. According to the article, just like So­kol, Shevardeni was not a purely sports society and its purpose was disse­mi­nation of the moral-oriented philosophy and original esthetics related to many arts (painting, poetry, choreography, music...), members of the Society were closely related to the spheres of medicine, social and political sciences. Similar to Sokol, worldview of Shevardeni was mentally close to the ancient Hellenic world, in particular, with Kalokagathia. Shevardeni had time to publish quite limited literature, but these pub­lications demonstrate that many Georgian poets, musi­cians, painters, publi­cists (Shio Mgvimeli, Mikel Pataridze, Sezman Ertatsmindeli, Ioane Kipiani, Ivane Beridze, Evgeni Mikeladze, Va­le­rian Sidamon-Eristavi, Soso Aslanish­vili, Vano Pataridze, Ivane Machavariani...) collaborated with Shevardeni and esthetics, close to ancient Hellenic and Czech Sokol, gradually estab­lished in their art. For Shevardeni, similar to Sokol from Prague, revival of the national spirit was one of the main goals, Hellenic and Czech Sokol esthetics influenced members and followers of Shevardeni but they intended to develop this esthetics on the basis of Georgian national soil (they have created the Society’s anthem relying on the national spirit, also Georgian logotypes, national sportswear etc.). They had no time to fully realize their ideas. Shevardeni was founded in 1918 and, supposedly, for alleged nati­onalism, it was terminated by the Soviet government in 1922. Magazines published by Shevardeni contained numerous ar­ticles that, regarding both, their contents and stylistics, were quite close to one of the works (“On Physical Upbringing”) by famous Georgian writer and politician Geronti Kikodze (1888-1960) pub­lished in 1919 (generally, this book was very popular in 20s in Georgia); it praises ancient Hellas and discusses the worldview that has the greatest influence on the ancient Greek philosophy, litera­ture and arts; Kikodze’s work mentioned Czech Sokol in very posi­tive context… In our opinion, in addition to the fact of existence of Sokol in Prague, the mentioned work by Geronti Kikodze has also contributed to emergence of the idea of creation of the society similar to Sokol in Georgia. According to the main conclusion in the work, Georgian so­ciety She­vardeni existing in the period from 1918 to 1922 should not be regarded as a sports organization only and the history of its activities should be studied in the aspects of philosophy, fiction, many arts, medicine, political, social sciences etc.
Some Issues of Vazha-Pshavela's "The Unlucky Lucky One" In Relation to Folktale
The literary fairy tale originated from folklore. Its foundation in folklore gave rise to the development of individuality within the artistic environment. This connection aims to uphold kinship with the immediate ancestors, sustaining a tradition that thrives with consistent vigor. The mate­rial in the visible world, recognized by people, forms the basis for creating fairy tales. Tradition often uti­lizes well-known folklore stories as a structural backbone for such writings. These stories serve as a platform where real-world ele­ments dissolve into the narrative. Within these tales, psychological and physiological layers are exposed, offering a glimpse into the complexities of human experience. While the external realities and compositional frame­works may evolve, the original folk essence re­mains visible, albeit with a fresh interpretation. The motives em­bedded in people's hearts, shaped by deep-seated beliefs and ideas appeared to be as the central axis around which the themes of liter­a­ry fairy tales revolve. The perception surrounding the folk essence of Vazha-Pshavela's work is widely acknowledged. Generally, the concept of folk literature can be some­what nebulous, as it suggests origins from the core of communal ex­pression and embodies the distinctive traits synonymous with folklore. While Vazha-Pshavela held a deep appreciation for folk crea­tivity as a wellspring for literature, he placed a paramount em­phasis on the individual creator's talent over the folk material when incor­porating folk narratives. Viewing legends and fairy tales as initial inspirations, he believed that the true empowering force lies in the transformative act itself, not merely in retelling. The poet, like the seed of an idea, has the task of expanding a sin­gle syllable into a myriad of meanings. Regardless of the richness and depth of people's tales, if the poet fails to infuse their own spirit, reshape the narrative in their crucible of crea­tivity, and craft something innovative from the source material rather than simply mirroring traditional accounts, the resulting work may lack the essen­ce that distinguishes genuine artistic endeavor. We will explore the link between folklore and literary fairy tales through the analysis of the folk fairy tale "Sun Woman" and Vazha-Psha­ve­la's poem "The Unlucky Lucky One"; Vazha-Pshavela categorizes "The Un­lucky Lucky One" as a fairy tale. Within the term "fairy tale," the author likely refers to a fictional narrative or, as the poet elucidates, a form of "fal­se-truth." Otherwise, this desig­na­tion would extend beyond the thematic scope, narrative charac­ter, and storytelling techniques typically associated with folk tales (Kurdovanidze, 1991, p. 70). An initial distinction arises here: while the folk tale "The Woma111111n of the Sun" stands as a prose narra­tive, Vazha-Pshavela's "The Unlucky Lucky One" unfolds in a poetic realm. In crafting his tale, Vazha-Pshavela incorporates the familiar opening formula from folk tales, "It was and not what it was." Yet, while in the folk tra­dition this phrase conveys a sense of timeless mystery and a departure from linear time, hinting at the trans­cendental nature of narrative time, in the literary realm, this for­mula lacks the same timeless essence. Instead, the introduction to a literary fairy tale often grapples with contemporary under­standing and addresses the societal issues and concerns of the period in which it is composed. Thus, Vazha-Pshavela returns to the motif of the fairy tale and, taking into account its tradition, establishes good and punishes evil (a healing spring flows over Sabralo's grave, and a swamp, living water, stands on the graves of Sabralo's brothers). In conclusion, it can be said that the literary fairy tale as a genre is a mixture of fairy tale and fantasy, which gives rise to a complex semantic variant of the works, which allows the author's ideas to be interpreted at different levels. Vazha-Pshavela's attitude towards folk material is creative even in "The Unlucky Lucky One". The poet transforms oral motifs, gives a new interpretation to traditional themes and elevates them to an original understanding.
Georgian Historical Epic – Searches and Assumptions
Our interest towards the Georgian folk epic is determined not only by a professional attitude, but also by the necessity to know our national identity, because no matter how paradoxical it is, in the era of globalization as universal integration, it becomes even more topical to clarify one's own identity among independent nati­ons, which is best preserved by collective memory and folk orality. It is noticeable that in the conditions of Georgian national identity and long-lasting state life, the deficiency of Georgian orality in terms of historical genre texts causes a kind of surprise, such a picture is created as if the memory of the ancestors refused to preserve such cultural heritage. There are various explanations for this, and the majority of Georgian researchers agree with Vakhushti Batonishvili's opinion, who cites the "shor­tness of memory" of the people as the reason for the shortcoming, be­cause the artistic memory of the people does not exceed the common age of four or five generations. We can compare folklore to a constantly renewable jewel, and for the sake of conspicuousness, we can imagine people's dwe­lling place – a house which gets old over time, its door, windows, and roof change. Sometimes a completely new house is built on an old foundation, but the function of the house never changes, its general architecture and purpose, which, if we take it as an example of a historical epic, always preserves a solid structural com­position, a style of artistic environment and metaphorical thinking, a set of signs whose exact identification is provided by the structural-morphological analysis of a text. Here it is necessary to mention that the modern researcher will have to carry out this work not in museums and archives, in the forgotten cen­turies of history or in the deep annals of the history of literature, but in the living process of people's orality, in the depository of collective memory. Our main support in the research process is the complete collection of "Amiraniani" published in the Shota Rustaveli Institute of Literature, along with other folklore materials. This epic, as an expression of the spi­ri­tual wealth of Georgia and a fundamental ar­gument for the historical in­tegrity of the country, is connected with its spread in all parts of Georgia in a unified cultural environment. It has been noted by the researchers that traces of events repre­senting different historical eras can be found in this text. Some of them are so clear and indisputable that, I think, the time has come for a complex observation and interdisciplinary research on it, which will confirm the existence of other epic and historical songs in it, which will further clarify the authen­ticity of the original text and determine its genre context. Nevertheless, "Amiraniani" does not contain specific geogra­phical to­po­nyms or historical eras, today's readers can see not only the signs of tribal battles in it, but also the motive of liberating one's country and the idea of national unity. Our work is related to the search for a completely indepen­dent historical epic "Pharnavaziani" in the epic of "Amiraniani", as well as in the bottomless well of Georgian orality. We think that this kind of text already exists in the form of contamination and it is necessary to separate it and clean it from impurities. For this, we rely on the works of Georgian scientists about the folk epic, the general rule of folklore, the traditional research methodology, as well as the modern theories of sociology, which separate collective and individual creation patterns from each other, and determine the boundaries of genre identity. Naturally, our point of view is legitimate in the manner of raising the issue, and we expect that this initiative will have both supporters and opponents. We hope that future opponents will try to justify or invalidate this opinion based on scientific arguments. Only such a mode of con­fron­tation will define the useful position, which will help to see the positive result of the cultural memory of our nation and preserve it in the future.
Epigon of Baratashvili For the Attribution of „Klede-Kaneli“ Poems
The article echoes Professor Gocha Kuchukhidze's letter "Who is hiding behind the pseudonym Klede-Kaneli (unknown poems of Nikoloz Baratashvili?)". According to the author, two po­ems under the pseudonym Klede-Kaneli in the Censor Committee Fund of the National Archives of Georgia (folder 480-1-718), titled: "I found the temple" and "God-parent", may belong to Nikoloz Bara­tashvili, and the family name Palavandishvili written underneath refers to them. On the origin from the archive of Nikoloz Palavan­dishvili. The poems were submitted for publication in the "Theatre" newspaper. On January 26, 1886, the chief censor, Solomon Me­lik-Megrabov, was forbidden to print the poems, taking into account the 6th and 9th clauses of the statute of the censorship committee. Is it possible that Nikoloz Baratashvili is the author of the presented poems? In addition to the public's great interest in the issue, it is my duty as a textologist and scientific head of the Bara­tashvili project to answer this question! (Project FR-23-10216. 2023 19.12.– 2026 19.12 "Preparation of a new academic volume of the works of Nikoloz Baratashvili and a digital chronicle of the poet's life and work" is supported by the Rustaveli National Science Foundation). Determining attribution (issue of authorship) in textology requires com­plex research and is based on the following necessary data: 1. Documen­tary references (writer's archive, autograph and prin­ted sources, bibliog­raphic lists, biographical references, memo­ries of contemporaries, various types of records, censorship commi­ttee materials, prints, etc.); 2. Ideological analysis of texts 3. Lin­guistic-stylistic research (see studies: Reiser, Opuls­kaya, Shtokman, Lortkipanidze). However, due to the lack of sufficient docu­mentary material, the researcher may not be able to reach the exact result even by using these methods, that's why in the academic editions of the essays, a section is allocated the so called "Dubia" ("The suppo­sed"), where texts are printed, about the authorship of which there are more or less credible arguments (see studies: Prokhorov, Chrelashvili). The article presents all the arguments, considering which allows us to prove that the opinion about the origin of the poems from Nikoloz Pala­vandishvili archive is based only on the assum­ption of the researcher, and we do not have any other credible argu­ment yet. Also, it is impossible to attribute these poems to Nikoloz Baratashvili, since we do not have enough documentary material for the present time; Ideological and stylistic com­patibility of the poems with Baratashvili's poetry is not observed. Hence, the arguments presented by the researcher are insuffi­cient to determine the attribution of the text. For the same reason, we do not con­si­der the mentioned poems as probable texts, and we do not consider it appro­priate to include them in the "Dubia" sec­tion at this stage.
Cultural-cognitive Aspets of the Georgian Translations of „Songs of Songs“
The discussion of the cultural-cognitive aspects of the Geor­gian tran­slations of the most difficult text of the Old Testament, „Song of Songs“, is connected with many difficulties. Because such high texts are characterized by hiding and obscuring themselves, covering the composition, disguising them­selves through allegorical contexts. The places to be analyzed in the Geor­gian editions of this book of King Solomon are compared with each other, as well as with the academic text of the Septuagint, the Septuagint accom­pa­nied by a literal Hebrew translation, the Sinic and Venetian codices of the Septuagint. Georgian editions of the Bible used: Revision O – The Oshk or Athos Bible and Jerusalem Codex of 978 Digi­tized by Zurab Sarjveladze and Jost Gippert; Redaction of the S-Mtskheta Bible according to an unpubli­shed ma­nus­cript of the 17th –18th centuries; Editorial – Α unpublished manuscript of the 17th century; Edition Β – the text of the Moscow Bible of 1743. The paper presents the exegesis of the context and megatext of the Georgian title „Song of Songs“ 2. The dramaturgy of remarks in the Georgian translation and the Septuagint Remarque code. The article analyzes the most important cultural and cognitive aspects of Georgian translations of the „Song of Songs“. The translation of the title is not literal, since Georgian translators and editors instead of „song“ („Άσμα Ασμάτων“,) chose the lexeme „praise“, „the best prai­­­se“. This reduplicated form, which expresses the superlative deg­ree, has the contexts of both „praise“ and „singing“. The choice of this lexeme is deliberate, since the Song of Songs was read alle­gorically. In the Georgian Bible (edition A), it is directly indicated in the title that this is a praise of the Most Holy Theotokos, the best of blessings. In the ancient Oshk Bible, verse 1 is missing. 1. In all ancient translations, except for the Syriac translation of the Peshita, the title says „song“. And in the Syriac translation of Peshita the lexeme is „Wisdom of Wisdom“ (Lo­pukhin). In the Old Armenian translation there is also a song „Երգ Երգոց“. Despite the fact that the so-called Bakar Bible (1743) was compared with the Slavic edition of the Bible, nothing has changed in the translation of the title „Song of Songs“. The Georgian tradition won. In the Georgian editions there are remarks. The appearance of remarks, on the one hand, is caused by the absence of the category of gender in the Georgian language. Remarks are absent in the Hebrew text, as well as in many codices of the Septuagint. As far as possible, we compa­red the remarks of all the Georgian editions under consideration with the remarks of the Sinaiticus Codex of the Septuagint of the 4th century and tried to determine their place in the artistic fabric of the text. It is very likely that the Georgian monks from the Sinai monastery were well acquainted with this codex. In the Mtskheta Bible-S, more de­tailed, expanded remarks, which play a large role in the composition of the „Song of Songs“.
„Holy are the books of Martyrs“ or „Holy are the parts of Martyrs“ To clarify one question in „Torture of Shushanik“
At the beginning of „Tortures of Shushanik“ the word „mar­tyrium“ is mentioned which meant a Christian church or a cons­truc­­tion erected on the graves of saints in old Georgian. When Varsken changed his religion, Shushanik told him: „Your father erected martyrium and built churches…“ Abuladze, 2020, 15). Besides that, martyrium also meant reliquaries, such as boxes, crosses, icons, necklaces, and sometimes even books, which con­tained special nests for keeping martyrs pieces. Is it possible that in the text the author meant reliquaries? The author writes about Shushanik when she was forced to leave the church for the castle: „And she went and took Gospel and Holy Book of Martyrs“ (356v). This is the oldest version of the manuscript. But according to all the rest, or ten manuscripts (with very few stylistic or orthographic changes), Shushanik took pieces of saints: „And she went and took Gospel and relics of martyrs“ (A130, 172). Shushanik really could have had the Gospel (and Psalms as well), because the existence of translations of biblical books in the 5-th-6-th centuries is confirmed in Georgian reality in the forms of palimpsests: frag­ments from the Sabatsminda four chapters (A999, V century), from the prophets of Isaiah (A 884, the 5-th century), frag­ments of Jeremiah from Cairo Geniza (VI-VII centuries), frag­ments of the Gospel(A 89, A 844, VI-VII centuries), etc. But what is meant by the phrase: „Holy is the book of martyrs?“ According to the phrase, the queen brings several books with the Gospel, books describing the merits of the martyrs. There is also a point of view that this may be a collection of hagiographic readings. We think, that neither of these points is true. Why should the queen take some books to the evening prayer? We can’t even think of a collec­tion as „the books“ is in the plural form in this phrase. We think here we have to deal with the wrong opening of the valve. In the translated version of the phrase „Tsni igi ntslni/ntsni mostametani it is easy to have lost letters. Thus, the version of Parkhli manuscript that Shushanik took the books describing the deeds of martyrs from the church to the palace should not be correct. Is it possible that Shushanic had reliquaries with her, i.e. „the holy one is part of martyrs?“ The traditions developed in the artistic centers in the Chris­tian Eastern countries were reflected in the Toreutics of the pre-Christian Era. It is known that works of applied art from the men­tioned centers as well as from Rome and Byzantium: pendant icons, medallions, crosses, pyxes, censers, and reliquaries were wi­dely im­ported to us. Such reliquaries were very common in ancient Geor­gia. Probably, Shushanik should have had this kind of part with her. Thus, although it is documentarily proved that in the 5-th century in Georgia there already was a liton of translated (and we think original) mar­ty­rological writings, Kymenian readings, but „The Tortures of Shushanik“ cannot be used as an argument for this. It is more logical to think that Shushanik takes the reliquary from the church to the palace, a reliquary in which the relics of the holy martyrs are kept, especially, since this version is also supported by the ten manuscripts that have survived to this day and not „holy are the books of Martyrs“, that is the version offered by many chapters of Parkhli.
On the Esthetics of Georgian Baroque Poetry: Verses Read Forwards and Backwards and “Mukhranuli”
The poets, artists, sculptors and musicians of the Baroque pe­riod felt that a "new age" had arrived, and so they clearly distin­gui­shed their art from that of the artists of the previous period and ca­refully sought out new forms of expression. Baroque poetry is cha­racterised by novelty in both content and form. In the Baroque culture, the importance of the recipient, reader, viewer and listener increased; therefore, special attention was paid to such concepts as "interesting", "worthy of attention", "expressive", "entertaining", "amu­sing", "playful" and all these concepts can be unified in a single category of "astonishing", because the main goal of the Baroque ar­tist is to surprise, astonish the reader and listener, and therefore they carefully studied the reac­tions of their viewers and readers in order to affect them more effec­tively with their works. The desire to impress readers and listeners is, to some extent, asso­ciated with the function of playing. In the 17th century, the concept of play was primarily associated with the Baroque style. One of the primary principles of Baroque art is the aspiration to create astonishing works of art and to strive for that goal. Conse­quently, the Baroque aesthetic was deve­loped with the inten­tion of impressing humans. The criterion for assessing artistic works was taste (gusto). The concept of taste was a key determinant of the sty­listic choices made by authors of the Baroque era, with the aim of striving to achieve astonishment from their readers and listeners. Georgian literature spanning the 17th and 18th centuries is distin­guished by the introduction of new genres and an abundance of formalistic searches, as well as the mastering of the visual and acoustic capacities of the form. Poets of that period were not satis-fied with the earlier forms of the verses and oriented their talent and capabilities to seeking and establishing of the new forms. New poetic forms have emerged, characterised by their unusual and int­ricate nature. they were intended to astonish the readers and liste­ners and some of them have even became the subject of poetic contests. The aspiration to innovate, desire to impress the readers and listeners delight and amaze them with something new and di­fferent, as characteristic for Georgian authors of that period, is the feature of the European Baroque literature in general. In this article, in the context of Baroque esthetics, we have considered the palin­dromes, i.e. verses to be read forwards and bac­kwards, authored by various poets and “Mukhranuli” by Vakhtang VI. The palindrome, which can be read from either direction, proved par­ti­cularly appealing to Georgian Baroque poets. The authors of palin­dromes in Georgian literature of the period in question are as follows: Archil II, Jakob Shemokmedeli, Svimon Kopadze, Onana Mdivani, and Vakhtang VI. The interest of Geor­gian authors in this form can be explained by the influence of Baro­­que aesthetics. In this context, the concept of "reflection" and "mirroring" is a particularly important phenomenon in the arts of the Baroque era. The "mirror" and the "shadow" assume a special significance within this context. The concept of reflection, namely that each subject may possess a dual aspect, one external and seemingly distinct, yet reflecting its essential nature, is a widespread theme in Baroque works. Consequently, the motif of the mirror, which extensively utilises the 'principle of play' inhe­rent to the creative arts, emerges as a dominant motif of the Baroque era. The distinctive quality of the line, which could be read in both a left-to-right and right-to-left direction, proved a significant source of inspiration for Georgian poets. This phenomenon, cha­racterised by a mirror-like sym­met­ry in the repetition of letters and sounds, offered a unique oppor­tunity for creative expression. Identi­fying palindrome words is a challenging task that requires a keen eye and patience to uncover within a given language's vocabulary. These words possess a distinctive quality, namely a "duality," which often goes unnoticed by others until they are pointed out. This dis­co­very can elicit a sense of astonishment among readers, highligh­ting the intriguing nature of such linguistic phenomena. In light of the aforemen­tioned context, this entertaining form of verse appea­led to poets due to its dual meaning and mirroring principle, whe­reby the effect was not merely auditory but also visual, encom­pa­ssing the symmetric reflection of graphe­mes. This made it a multi-sensory experience, appealing to both the eyes and ears. It is note­wor­thy that palindromes enjoyed popularity in Ukraine, Russia, and Poland during the Baroque era, where they were known as "versus cancrinus." In the context of versification searches pertaining to Vakh­tang VI, it is of particular significance to direct attention to the verse that is known under the title "Mukhranuli". It is of interest for two reasons: firstly, due to its allegoric content, and secondly, due to its form. The verse is composed of 20 syllables and comprises four lines. It exhibits both internal and external rhythm. In the manus­cript, the verse is divided into two columns, enabling the text to be read both horizontally and vertically while maintaining its content. Consequently, the verse allows for two distinct reading methods, although a third variant exists in which the lines of the left and right co­lumns alternate, and the sense is maintained in this case as well. Conse­quently, Vakhtang's 'Mukhranuli' presents the reader with three distinct possibilities for interpreting the verse. Such a demonstration of the author's craftsmanship is likely to elicit a sense of astonishment from the reader. In our view, the sonnet by French poet Étienne Durand, entitled 'Sonnet à lecture multiple', offers a parallel example. The sonnets that could be read in several ways are presented in Russian Baroque literature as well. The formalist experiments of the Baroque epoch cannot be considered as mere "playthings" devoid of significance. The formal, refined and light nature of these works provides evidence of the poet's considerable achie­vements, as well as indicating an under­stan­ding of the poet's creative power. It is important to recognize that the Baroque movement and style are not the only aspects that define this period; it is also characterized by a distinct approach to thinking. This can be exemplified by the work of Emanuele Tesau­ro, who is known for his alive and quick mind. This concept of a "mind alive and quick" plays a significant role in determining the aesthetic of Georgian Baroque poetry, particularly in terms of its use of surprise and desire to captivate readers and listeners.
„How is Language Created – Grigol Robakidze about the Essence of a Language“
The 20th-century immigrant writer, poet, playwright, and public figure Gr. Robakidze. He extensively discusses the process of language cre­ation and its essence, as well as the connection between language and nati­onal phenomenon, in his philosophical sketches, essays, and letters. Robakidze perceives language as a mental organ of the mind. Accor­ding to him, the mind is singular and unique, but during the process of actu­alization, it takes shape, becomes distinguished, and thus, language is born. To elucidate this viewpoint, Robakidze refe­rences the famous expression of the Russian philosopher V.I. Solo­viev: "Language is the real mind." Furthermore, the Georgian thinker deliberates on the issue of lan­guage creation within the context of nationality and national phenomenon. His letter "Soul and Creation of the Nation" asserts that every nation is a unified social body, and the soul of the nation is an alive, essential entity that exists within the unknowable realm of its members' nature. Robakidze views the authorship of language as collective, belonging to no one indi­vidual but involving the participation of everyone within the nation. Roba­kidze contends that the realization of national phenomenon occurs through the spiritual energy of language, which is expressed in a perfected form. He believes that nationality, as a private entity, is primarily revealed through language. It is noteworthy to mention the significant influence of the German scientist Wilhelm von Humboldt's energeistic theory of lan­guage, linguistic worldview on Robakidze's ideas. This influence is evident in Robakidze's discussions. Additionally, Georgian neo-humboldtologist Guram Ramishvili has extensively researched this topic, particularly in his work "Issues of the Energetic Theory of Language." Robakidze examines the essence of language and its impor­tance for the nation through the example of the Georgian language. He asserts that the Georgian language embodies primordial know­ledge, stating, "The Geor­gian word is alive – let's say it is the Ger­man 'Ursprache,' the first language. In its first existence lies the first knowledge of secrets." In his creative thinking, Robakidze presents his opinions in a hypo­thetical manner, which he considers as arguments confirming the primordial knowledge revealed in the Georgian language. For this purpose, he meticu­lously studies various Georgian words, such as "word," "look," "fruit," "sove­reign," "Sunday," "fasting," and others. In conclusion, this article explores Robakidze's perspective on the pro­cess of language creation, its essence, and its relationship to the national phenomenon.
Biblical Motifs of Jean Racine's "Esther" Poetics
The article presents a literary and philosophical analysis of the biblical motifs of the play “Esther” by Jean-Baptiste Racine, a pro­minent representa­tive of European classicism, an outstanding French playwright of the 17th century. Despite the fact that in the era of classicism, the representation of antiquity was considered the standard and norm, Racine was able to convey biblical passages in his drama "Esther" with high artistic skill and introduced innovative ideas both in terms of content and form. The work discusses the poetic language and vocabulary of Jean Racine, excerpts of biblical passages from the text of the tragedy "Esther" and expressions that echo the theological thought from the Old Testament book of Esther. In this play, the author conveys biblical passages without breaking the content against the back­ground of his contemporary 17th century era of absolutism, poli­tical-social tension. The Old Testament source of Racine's tragedy "Esther" is seen as an alle­gory representing the relationship between the church and God accor­ding to some Christian biblical scholars. The nuances of the text of the book of Esther, which are taken from the Old Testa­ment, as well as all the actions of the main character of Racine's drama, Esther, are loaded with biblical symbolism, the verses are filled with the spirit of the Bible with tropical thinking. This play is recognized as the culmination of Racine's theatrical art, because the author manages to combine the ancient legacy of tragedy in poetry, with the magical melody of opera and the strictest religious morality, and all this in full compliance with Aristotle's precepts. The scientific novelty of the article is the intertextual and comparative analysis of the poetics of Racine's play "Esther" with the works of famous Georgian writers (For example: “The Knight in Tiger Skin” by the greatest Georgian world-class poet Shota Rusta­veli, “Didmouraviani” by Joseph Tfile­li (XVII century), King of Imereti Archil, Teimuraz I King of Kakheti etc.), which will be im­por­tant for a better understanding biblical aspects of the poetics of Racine's "Esther" and in this regard, for presenting the similarities between European classicism and the common problems of the Georgian classics of the same era. The article discusses and evaluates the literary-religious re-understan­ding of history based on Old Testament motifs by Jean Racine, which he perfectly presented in his drama "Esther" with the elements of ancient theo­ries of classicism and an amazing synthesis of biblical passages. He intro­duced innovative ideas in both the form and content of this work and added new life to the tragedies of the era of European classicism.
„History of Georgian Literature" by Hryts Khalimonenko
Development of Kartvelology has a national significance along with the scientific. In the political and cultural environment caused by the trans­national processes of modern globalization, it is impor­tant to determine the place of each national culture. This becomes particularly relevant in the case of preserving the identity of the ori­gi­nal cultures of a small number of coun­tries. From this point of view, studying the self-contained culture of Geor­gia, as a small country and adapting it to the cultural achievements of mo­dern hu­ma­nity is the main challenge of both Georgian and foreign Kartve­lology studies. Both, the traditions and the modern state of Kartvelology stu­dies ab­road are well known for us. It should be noted that Ukrai­nian Kartvelo­logy studies have a rich and long tradition, which is still not properly stu­died in Georgian literary studies. The existing scientific literature on the reflection of Georgian literature and culture in Ukraine is somehow influ­enced by ideology, precisely because of the Soviet ideological science, many facts were unknown and not accessible to researchers. These materials are, in fact, unknown even to Georgian scientific circles. In the report, I discuss the unique monograph "History of Georgian Literature" (Kiyv, 2021) by the Ukrainian Kartvelolologist Hryts Khalimo­nenko, which in terms of scope, depth and volume of research can only be compared to Donald Rayfield's "THE LITE­RATURE OF GEORGIA". In order to fully analyze the work, I will consider the tradition of Kartvelology studies and the study of Georgian literature in Ukrainian science. In order to analyze this issue in depth, in the report I will also discuss the unknown archival materials that I have found. This kind of approach shows, on the one hand, the relationship of the mentioned work with the already existing tradition, and on the other hand, highlights a new stage of modern Ukrai­nian Kartvelology studies.
„Heaven Gave Me and… Heaven Accepted Me”
The Second World War had just finished when (1946, 5.V) student Ana Kalandadze recited her first poems at the Writers’ Union of Georgia, the majority of which were later recognized as masterpieces. War and post-war poetry was strictly limited to decla­rative, conjunctive style and themes, which did nothing to do with Ana Kalandadze's pathos. She was warmly appreciated, and soon after her first performance, her poems were published in Georgian journals. It was a promising start. However, everything radically changed in August 1946 with a new wave of repression launched by the totalitarian Soviet system. Anna Akhmatova, Mikhail Zosh­chen­ko, Nikolay Tikhonov were severely reprimanded by the deci­sion of the Central Commi­ttee of the CPSU ... the latter was dis­missed from the chairmanship of the board of the Writers' Union. There were no objective reasons for such a de­ci­sion by the gover­nment. Such was the subjective attitude of the evil em­pire towards freethinking. The repression campaign begun in Moscow was then extended to the "union" republics. Taking into account the message re­ceived from the center, in 1946, literary magazine “Mnatobi” (No. 9, 10) shar­ply criticized Ana Kalandadze's poetry for not being guided by advanced ideas, being trapped in decadence, etc. From now on, Ana Kalandadze's free poetry would have to follow the censor's orders. She refused to obey, stopped publishing poems, and only in 1953 her first book came out. Post-Stalinist liberalization has made it possible to avoid the absurd clichés of socialist realism since the second half of the twentieth century. In Georgian scientific criticism, Ana Kalandadze is regarded the first author (I. Ratiani), who overcame this tough path of transformation and created poet­ry with new artistic values. In her poems, it is especially important to pre­sent with greater in­ten­sity the spiritual world of the lyrical hero, persona­lity. Her lyri­cal reflections, lyrical monologues, biblical motifs, historical themes organically blend into the poet's thought system, thinking about the meaning of life. The early poetic forms of life and beauty, her pa­lette, were colored with new, complex feelings of earthly life, exis­ten­tial visions. Her lyrics largely determined the achievements of Georgian poetry in the second half of the 20th century.
Destiny of Untitled Poems (Ana Kalandadze's poetry)
In the realm of artistic thought, giving titles to texts is of paramount significance, influencing how the reader comprehends and engages with a work. Titles have the power to prolong the en­du­ring essence of a book, so­metimes surpassing even the promi­nen­ce of the author. As author George Simenon astutely observed, "Un­fortunately, the title itself often becomes the gateway to inter­pre­ting the work." Titles such as "Red and Black" or "War and Pea­ce" establish a specific atmosphere and anticipation for the reader. Authors who allow readers to name and shape the main characters, such as in "David Copperfield" or "Robinson Crusoe," show a deep level of res­pect for their audience. A title not only ser­ves to encapsulate the essence of the work but also directs the reader's focus towards specific themes or messages within the narra­tive, which would otherwise remain unspoken in the absence of a title. That is why unentitled masterpieces evoke a distinct "literary mood" that demands a unique poetic sensibility and shapes their own fate. The absence of a title, whether indicated by ellipses or dashes, primarily evokes a sense of boundless creativity or creative energies bursting forth seemingly uninhibited. Untitled poems shouldn't necessarily be linked solely to the author's imagination or associative processes. Instead, they represent a form that allows the reader, when confronted with the work, to delve into its depths without any preconceived notions or guidance from a title. It grants the reader the freedom to interpret and engage with the piece on a more personal and profound level. The roots of untitled works can be traced back to folklore, particularly in the form of succinct expressions like two-line (less frequently three – or four-line) poems known as "Folk aphorisms." These minimalist figurative expressions serve as the foundational "poetic steps" leading to the creation of intricate folk masterpieces. Consequently, the themes encapsulated within these concise poems, prevalent in oral poetry, manifest a wide range of diversity and depth. Distinct "artistic expr­essions" emerge in Georgian poetry, where the anonymity of poems serves as a signature style for certain authors. Focusing on Ana Kalan­dadze's poetry, it's noteworthy that the anonymity within her po­ems sparked my interest in this unconventional exploration. Years later, this initial curiosity culminated in an interpretation of the author's associative vision, notably captured in a piece titled "The Serpent Prays." In the context of Ana Kalandadze's work, being untitled can be seen as a deliberate artistic choice that allows for a unique un­folding of poetic exp­ression. This approach serves as a "poetic ma­neu­ver" to transcend the cons­traints of reality and cultivate a sense of "literary mysticism" within her po­etry. By doing so, Kalandadze managed to shield numerous enigmatic poems from the pressures of conformity, a sentiment I encountered in Ana Kalan­dadze's own prose reflections. That's why she established a sort of "code" of untitled works in Geor­gian poetry, leading to an extensive list of such poems (in the poetry of Anna Kalandadze, specifically in the 2004 edition, there are nearly three hundred untitled poems). This is why it seems fitting to focus on just one chapter – "Shine, unattainable..." – where the essence of the poetry transcends mere titles. It is in this chapter that the profound depth of the poetry exists beyond names, embodying a poetic understanding of sacred origins. For Ana Kalandadze, this kind of existence is equivalent to living with an "empty soul" and that's why in poetic manifestation author still strives to "erect, find the temple of the soul", which is "sky-high" and full of "sen­sations" ("Behold, the temple...", 1973, p. . 335), where there is only heaven and the immense movement of the soul... this is a poetic speech following in the footsteps of faith ("Who owns the icon...", 1973, p. 336), it is the "house of baptism" towards which the eternal strives the soul is pure and sensitive. Anna Kalandadze considered the untitled poems to be such a shelter. After all, he created a completely free artistic space behind anonymity, whe­re words are born with unconditional knowledge or bottomless access. At the same time, the untitled work here is a kind of puzzle and the "path of life" of the poem. Furthermore, through this distinctive artistic signature, the poetess's poetic journey can be interpreted in a divergent light, highli­ghting the do­mi­nance of emotions intertwined with the profound silence of enigmas...
The Concept of Absurdity and its Reflection in Georgian Writing
The concept of absurdity appears in world literature even with the authors of the ancient era (Aristophanes, Plautus, etc.), howe­ver, in a more established form it occurs iv later works ("Gulliver's Travels", "Tristram Shandy", "Alice in Wonderland") and Calderon's dramaturgy ("Life is a dream"). In the above-mentioned texts, the characteristic features of the concept of the absurd begin to be rea­lized which in the 20th century landed in the philosophy of absurd, and the theater of absurd. French existentialists – Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus are at the head of absurd philosophy: It was in their philosophy that the theory of absurd was formed, which, in both cases, took an individual form. Albert Ca­mus dedicated to this issue a brilliant essay – "The myth of Sisy­phus", in which he formulated his views on the philosophy of absurd. The most intense manifestation of the philo­sophy of absurd in literature became the Theatre of Absurd, which was for­med in Europe in the 1950s due to the creative work of Samuel Beckett and his dramaturgy. Beckett, Ionesco, Adamov and other play-writers broke a new page in the world dramaturgy and writing. It is significant that the Georgian literature even being within the framework of the Soviet ideology was able to reflect this event and give different forms to the literary mode of the absurd. From this point of view, particular attention deserves the creative work of Georgian writers – Guram Rcheulishvili and Revaz Chei­shvili. The “special term Soviet Absurd” is implemented by the author of the essay in relation to their novels as a manifestation of resis­tance against the totalitarian ideology.
From the History of the Systematization of the Georgian Literary Process: Archil Jorjadze and Georgian Literature of the 1950s and 1960s
Archil Jorjadze evaluates the process of development of fiction and public opinion in Georgia in the 19th century based on the magazines published in that period. He refers to the generation that came out before the sixties as "old", and those who came out in the sixties – as "new". Among them, he calls the writers transitional ge­ne­ration. According to Jorjadze, the political thinking of the Geor­gian "commoner's intelligentsia" of the 50s and 60s implied a mix­ture of national feeling, democratic aspiration and patriar­chal-mo­nar­chical elements. According to Jorjadze, after the appearance of Ilia, Akaki and the "new generation" in writing, very important literary and social processes began. Clash of old and new, confron­tation of fathers and sons. This controversy, as everyone noted, star­ted on purely literary grounds, regarding the "unsuitability" of the language, and later turned into a deep, impassable chasm between the two worldviews. The new force brought a new language, thought, feeling and ideal to the Georgian socio-cultural space. To Archil Jorjadze's own question, does the sixties have a spe­cial "phy­siognomy" and what should be considered significant for this era, he himself answers that the sixties laid the foundation of the new Georgia, it should have started from that time and "slowly began to build a National Building according to European prin­ciples". As for the old generation, Jor­jadze sees parasitism and slavery as a charac­teristic of the old, while he sees the calling of the new generation in "self-reliance" and struggle. According to Jorja­dze's approach, this period as a whole, despite the reign of materi­alism, is clearly ide­alistic in nature. Jorjadze has well understood that the 1960s was a new era in our culture, it brought to Georgia the socio-political theories and formulas from the Europe in the nineteenth century. The "Europeanization" of Georgian thought began in the sixties. For Jorjadze, the main definition of the era is "liberalism-democracy". According to the cri­tic's explanation, it was necessary not only to convey liberal-democratic principles in Geor­gian writing, but also to "bring the identity of the Geor­gian nation into awareness". What is the defining sign of the sixties for the critic, in his opinion, it is the service of the people, which for that era, became holy. Howe­ver, Jorjadze does not shy away from a very harsh assessment of the 60s and notes that they had a "wrong" understanding of art theory. For the 60s, only that which served to improve the material side of the oppressed people was beneficial, they considered everything else as entertainment. The critic consi­ders it a mistake of the sixties that they "removed" the features of pleasure, enjoyment and "self-indulgence" from their art, and the emo­tion of sweetness is as inse­parable and important a feature of real art, whether it is realistic or symbolic, as "the feeling of satis­faction during moral action". Jor­jadze believes that education and raising morals were the main demand and desire of the Georgian high society of that era.
Monological and Dialogical Discourse and Forms of Address According to “Horace”, “Cinna” and “The Death of Pompey” by Pierre Corneille
In Pierre Corneille's "Roman Tragedies"-“Horace”, “Cinna” and “The Death of Pompey” the types of dramatic discourse – dialo­gues and mono­logues – occupy an important place. Dialogues and monologues have the function of self-expression of the characters. Monologue is one of the best ways to illustrate the characters' thoughts and inner feelings. According to the poetics of classicism, when the character is alone on stage, the principle of persuasiveness requires that he express his thoughts, which he often expresses in the form of a dialogue with himself, which he or she does not want anyone to hear. Through the monologue of the characters of Corneille's tragedies they not only carefully examine the hidden sides of their souls and convince themselves of the necessity of certain actions, but also examine and review possible decisions and the advantages and disadvantages of these decisions. In “Horace”, “Cinna” and “The Death of Pompey” the mono­lo­gue has the following functions: Through monologue, the actors of the tragedy express their personal feelings and attitudes. Through monologue, the characters of the tragedy judge and analyze this or that idea and point of view. Dialogue, like monologue, is a basic and important form of dramatic speech. P. Cornielle perfectly uses dialogues in "Roman tra­gedies" for the purpose of exchange of ideas between actors, tho­rough reasoning about the problem and persuasion of the interlocutor. Corneille's emotionally charged dialogues with a high tragic register express the pathos and ethos of the actors, their thoughts and inner feelings. In “Horace”, “Cinna” and “The Death of Pompey” Pierre Cor­neille, in addition to monologue and dialogic discourse, uses such rhetorical-stylistic means as: formal ("you") and informal ("you") forms of address and apos­trophes – "Seigneur", "Madame", "Princess", "Prince", "reine" and others. The use of the formal – "you" form of address is related to the rule accepted in the aristocratic society of France during the Pierre Corneille era, according to which the aristocracy mainly used the formal "you" of address in the 17th cen­tury. Pierre Corneille created tragedies, first of all, for the king and the society of the royal court, and the vocabulary of the acting heroes of the tragedy should be high and pathetic. As for the „you“ informal of address, its use by the characters indicates their emotional change, and the use of apostrophes orga­nizes the inter­locutive space in which the speakers, using evidence, in a state of emotional rapture or affect, directly convey what they have to say.
All scientists, who research The Georgian Enlightenment are inte­rested for the similarities and the differences of the Georgian and the European Enlightenment. The Late Revival was the transition period of the West Euro­pean culture. It was the middle period of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. Thus, this was the main reason of diversity of many styles of art and lite­rature. Some of them – the Baroque and the Classicism were the rep­resentations of the Late Revival and the other part was the result of the new epoch – The Enlightenment. The Georgian literature was developed side by side to Eastern lite­rature and European literature. For the development of the Georgian lite­rature was important the Eastern literature as well as the European litera­ture, but in the different epochs the influence was larger or smaller. According to this the Georgian literature of XVI-XVIII ages, which is named by Korneli Kekelidze as the Georgian Revival, was influenced by Eastern literature, but the Christianity was the main reason of the strong connection with Western and European lite­ra­ture and the representation of it was the Georgian Baroque (M. Nach­­khebia), and the Georgian Enlightenment (R. Baramidze, I. Ratiani). The central figure of the Georgian Enlightenment was David Gura­mishvili. He was a great representative of the Georgian Enligh­tenment as well as Georgian kings – Vakhtang the VI, Teimuraz the first, Archil – who were great poets too. The main quality of the literature of the European and the Georgian Enlightenment is democratization of literature and poetry. It should be no­ted that Davit Guramishvili was very closely connec­ted with democra­tization of Georgian poetry. David Guramishvili has widened and deepened the national-popular traditions of Geor­gian poetry. His poetry expresses folk wisdom, spread as aphorisms in his ,,Davitiani”. The ideal of the European Enlightenment is the reasonable gentleman who will express himself well in the commonplaces of the day, but will not bore others with his own special learning. The Classicism and The Baroque were well established in Europe. The most important theoretical work of the epoch of Neoclassicism in Europe was the Art of Poetry, published in France in 1647 by Boileau. This theoretical treatise remains one of the most famous works of criticism ever written. As long as the neoclassical doctrines ruled the world of letters, Boileau’s name was supreme. According to Boileau’s theory, truth and beauty are one. The poet uses his reason to discover truth in nature. It is plain that what Boileau means by nature is human nature and that he believes that this is best portrayed in the classics. The advice to study nature ends up by being the advice to study the classics. The most popular poets and writers of the Georgian Revival, Georgian Baroque, Georgian Classicism and Georgian Enlighten­ment didn’t write theoretical treatises, philosophical doctrines and theoretical letters, but their works and their poetry includes their ideas and philosophical, ethical, cos­mological and sicio-political views. That is why we can talk not only about similarities, but also about differences of Georgian Enlightenment and European Enlightenment. The main likenesses of the Georgian Enlightenment and the European Enlightenment are the creative methods – these are rationalism and the principle of the historicism, which is developed as the principle of the realism. The main difference of the Georgian Enlightenment and the European Enlightenment is the attitude to Christianity and the Church. The writers and the poets of the Georgian Enlightenment were not aggressive to Christianity and the Church.
Anatomy of Sin (according to the novel “The Thorns of Iscariot” by Maka Jokhadze)
Georgian writer Maka Jokhadze often uses biblical allusions, symbols, and paradigms to depict both enduring values and the most pressing problems of our time. In her works, allusions and inter­textual echoes from the books of the Old and New Testaments, as well as the thoughts of famous Christian theologians, are some­times overt and sometimes expressed through subtle artistic forms. Her new novel "The Thorns of Iscariot" can be called an apocryphal work, as the writer both follows gospel stories and varies them, enriching the narrative with imaginary, invented tales. The author's main task is an artistic representation of the anatomy of sin. For this, she chooses Judas, distinguished by the severity of his sin and his repentance. This novel is a palimpsest, multi-layered and pro­found. It focuses on representing the world, the fundamental laws of life, and eternal moral values. The portrayal of Judas in Georgian and world literature is characte­rized by diverse interpretations. While some writers adhere to the evange­lical paradigm, others attempt to radically reinterpret it. Maka Jokhadze stands out among authors for neither altering the gospel paradigm of Judas nor changing his canonical image. Instead, she strengthens and deepens it, striving to understand the cosmic origins of evil – an endeavor in which she succeeds admirably. The novel contains allusions to all four Gospels, with the author enriching the narrative by explicitly referencing them. Maka Jokhadze's novel highlights the religious, philosophical, and psychological aspects of sin. The writer pays attention to how sin is born and with what intentions people commit sins. Besides Judas, there are other sinners in the novel, including Herod Antipas, Herodias, Salome, Caiaphas, Hanna, Dumakh, Abigail, and Rovel. It is important for the author to show the nuances and gradations of sin, and what happens to a person when the seed of goodness within them finally dies. In analyzing Judas's character in the novel, the relationship between the sinner's free will and responsibility is emphasized. The writer also depicts the moral and ethical dilemmas that the characters face. Accordingly, certain sociocultural contexts are drawn. All this shows the reader the universal, seemingly com­plex nature of sin, in the creation of which many factors participate. As a result, the reader expe­riences conflicting feelings of both revulsion and sympathy for Judas. The reader feels sorry for Judas, who, according to the novel, lacked the strength to repent and ask for forgiveness from the Savior. Maka Jokhadze shows us how sin is born, how it conquers the human soul, heart, and mind, and how it clouds judgment. In Jokhadze's portrayal, Judas is born at the root of evil, and his fate seems predetermined from the very beginning. The writer also touches on the theme of ancient fate. The novel provokes deep reflection in the reader, encouraging introspection. It suggests that while one might find aspects of Judas within oneself, one should not fear this discovery. Instead, the reader is urged to fight against these tendencies, not submit to them, nor cultivate or strengthen them through spiritual or material compromises. Iscariot serves as a model of the world and our everyday existence. From its thorns, crowns of both glory and humiliation are woven. Both paths are painful, and the choice is free. It depends on the individual whether they will follow the path of Christ or Judas.
“I’m Bullet, that Vazha Owned, / not Fired Yet”
Whether you are looking from personal or creative stand­point, Goderdzi Chokheli was a reclusive person. The inner conflict he had with life was the cause of many events for him. In one poem, he seemed to ex­plain the essence of this contradiction: “I left one world and I came to ano­ther”. This “other” was alien to him. Of course, life required adaptation, com­promise, but it could not adapt Goderdzi Chokheli to its pattern. In the constant and intense conf­lict, sometimes one won and sometimes the other. At last, G. Cho­kheli took refuge in art and turned the creative process into an arena in which he overcame soulless and godless modernity and imposed his own order on it. Here began the tragic perception of reality, of life in general, which brought on the aesthetics of Chokheli. Chokheli's relationship with the world is a model of Christian thinking – experience eternity in a transient world. With this intention, he began to compose a new emotional reality. We can divide people into two groups in his work: those filled with kindness and those defiled by cruelty. From this point of view, the writer's position is also obvious and does not require special research. His rhetorical question also sounds natural: “Why is my being enveloped by this ephemeral world, which is cloudy as fog?!”. The unstoppable process of human cruelty exposes and inten­sifies the feeling that the drama of kindness has begun, the apo­calyptic time has come. Although, Chokheli's stories take place in geographically limited area, the cry of the microcosm could be heard from Gudamakari. Chokheli's artistic thinking, his work is the revealed secret of the visible and the invisible, the reality and the fiction, the real and the mythical. That is why he is the bearer of the unshakable code of culture and tradition at the same time. Goderdzi Chokheli's characters are strange people, strange in their life and death. He depicts people with the heart of an angel who believe that honesty is the pride of a man. Faithfulness and protection of spiritual values ​​turned out to be completely incom­patible for the era of the writer. That's why he was looking for lost love and kindness, collecting sorrows to ease our sadness and pain.
Sargis Tsaishvili -95. from the Mountain Tops to the Peaks of Life
Academician Sargis Tsaishvili - Rustaveliologist, Corresponding Member of the Georgian Academy of Sciences was born on December 20, 1929 in Tbilisi, in the family of a famous researcher of Georgian literature, Solomon Tsaishvili. In 1952 he graduated from the Faculty of Philology of Tbilisi State University and continued his studies at the postgraduate course of the Shota Rustaveli Institute of the History of Georgian Literature. He also defended his candidate and doctoral dissertations there. He was the director of the academic text-setting commission for "The Knight in the Panther's Skin", the head of the department and then the director of the Shota Rustaveli Institute of the History of Georgian Literature, the editor-in-chief of the journal "Literature and Art", the head of the Department of Georgian Language and Literature of the Georgian Technical University, the president of the Georgian Mountaineering Federation. Sargis Tsaishvili made great efforts to create and strengthen the material and technical base of the academic text-setting commission for "The Knight in the Panther's Skin", to develop organizational forms of work. Under his leadership, the richest lexical fund, an annotated bibliography of Rustaveliological literature, was created. Sargis Tsaishvili, indeed, made a great contribution to the important work of establishing the text of “The knight in the Panther’s Skin”. This is evidenced by his famous work “History of the Text of “The Knight in the Panther’s Skin”, which was published in two volumes in 1970. Based on the study of 162 manuscripts and 32 fragments, the researcher has drawn many important conclusions. It is worth mentioning the complete collection of works by Davit Guramishvili, published in 1980, which was compiled and included an introductory letter by Sargis Tsaishvili.
The Genesis of Nikoloz Baratashvili’s Poem „When I Am Happy with Your Presence“
In the notes and comments on the poetic works of Nikoloz Bara­tashvili, it is erroneously stated that his poem “When I am happy with your presence” is based on the anonymous Russian song "The Brook" that is suggested by Nikolai in Leo Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace” and the text of which is quoted by the writer's wife Sophia Tolstaya in her memoirs “My Life”. But in reality, as we have managed to find out, “When I am happy with your presence” has nothing to do with “The Brook”. Nikoloz Bara­tashvili’s poem is s a translation of the once popular romance by the Russian composer Pyotr Bulakhov to the words of “Kol’ sĉastliv ja s t’aboi bivayu” (“How I am happy with you”) by Vasily Chuyevsky, a Ru­ssian poet of the mid-19th century. Nikoloz Baratashvili’s trans­lation is as close as possible to the Russian source, to its meter, into­nation and refrain in the stanzas and key images of the original source. At the same time in Georgian translation some lines are modified and the melodic tonality of the original text is intensified. The date of Nikoloz Baratashvili's translation of the Russian romance is not indicated in the autograph. According to the editors of publications of his works, the translation was made in 1841. Biographical information about Vasily Chuevsky is almost comple­tely absent. It is only reliably known that he was one of the most remarkable poets and songwriters of the mid-19th century. There is information that in the mid-1840s, while being a student at Moscow University, he, together with Alexander Dubuque, a Russian com­poser and music teacher, published musical editions of romances and songs in 1846. Taking into account the year of Nikoloz Baratashvili's death, 1845, and the fact that some time had to pass before Vasily Chuevsky's ro­mance could come to the attention of the Georgian poet, certain conclu-sions can be made about the time of the creation of the Russian romance and its adaptation into Georgian. The translation of the Russian romance by Nikoloz Barata­shvili ex­pands our understanding of the character of the develop­ment of vocal lyrics in Georgian romantic poetry and, at the same time, deserves attention because there is almost no data on the life, creative activity and lifetime popularity of Vasily Chuyevsky. We attach to the article Petr Bulakhov’s notes on the words of the romance by Vasily Chuevsky, expanding our understanding of the nature of the music and text that attracted the attention of Nikoloz Baratashvili.
Specifing Two Dates in Nikoloz Baratashvili’s Studies
At different times many respected and distinguished scientists, such as Ek. Takaishvili, D. Karichashvili, P. Ingorokva, Ak. Gatse­relia, G. Leonidze, Iv. Lolashvili, S.Phirtskhalava have worked on academic editions of Nikoloz Baratashvili's writings. Their merit in this work is undoubtedly great. For more than half a century, since the last academic edition of the poet's writings (we mean the 1972 edition by Ak. Gatserelia and Iv. Lolashvili, Tbilisi, "Soviet Geor­gia"), there have been a lot of noteworthy monographs, theses, re­sear­ches, articles and scientific letters in Baratashvilology, the re­sults of which must be reflected in the new academic two-volume edition of Nikoloz Baratashvili's writings and the bilingual (Geor­gian-English) digital chronicle of the poet's life and work. This res­ponsible work is currently being carried out within the grant pro­ject of the Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation of Georgia (#FR-23-10216). The present article is devoted to some recent studies mainly concerned with the poet's epistolary heritage, which is an important and integral part of his work and, according to tradition, will take place in this edition with the appropriate scientific apparatus. These studies, along with others, naturally implied the work of finding new documents in archival and museum funds and reviewing the existing ones with a critical eye. The results obtained in the works and given in the article, consider the issues of the biography of Baratashvili's family circle – his two sisters. It should be noted, that our first aim was to verify the facts and circumstances, which, taking into account the latest Baratashvi­liological studies, appeared doubtfull and they need to be clarified in the academic and other scientific editions of the poet's works. In conclusion, it should be said that basing on the currently available archival materials, we tried to shed light on several issues of the biography of Nikoloz Baratashvili's two sisters: Ekaterine Baratashvili-Eristavi and Barbare Baratashvili-Vezirishvili. The results of the research, as already mentioned, should appear both in print and electronic editions determined by the grant project, as well as in other Baratashvilological and genealogical literature.
A Reflection of Aleksandre Orbeliani’s Private Life in Creative Works
Giorgi Leonidze, a poet and public figure, claimed that a wri­ter’s pri­vate life serves as the basis for his creative work. The biog­raphies of nu­merous classic writers confirm this statement. Gene­rally, this theme in lite­rature – the issue of the relationship between biography and creativity – is not only fascinating, but also helps to resolve some problematic points in the writer's life and creativity. A notable example of this is A. Kazbegi, whose writings contain facts from his personal life that attest to his authorship. The biography also had a great influence on A. Orbeliani’s creativity too. This study examines the writer’s works, which reflect the turbulent moments of his private life and contain the author’s inscriptions. It can be safely said that poetry depicting a biography in this way is rare in Georgian literature. Almost every poem is accom­panied by an inscription indicating where, when, why and how the work was written. Thus, the researcher can reconstruct not only interesting details of the writer's biography, but also the cre­ative process behind his works. Despite being exiled to Orenburg for participating in the 1832 cons­piracy, the writer did not cease his literary activities creating works in multiple genres. This study analyzes the poems written during his impri­sonment, such as, „Captured in Darkness“, „From Afar“, „Unfortunate since Childhood“, „The Caucasus Mountains from Mount Mashuk“, etc. In terms of artistic value, the inscriptions are on par with the pieces themselves. For instance, the inscription „Unfortunate since childhood“ reads as follows: „On April 13, 1835, in the new Aleksandrov fortress, at Kaidak Bay, at the mouth of the Caspian Sea“. Although the information is accurate, the author’s mood is not entirely conveyed. In light of this, the following was written in pencil: „I wrote the above verse out of heightened con­cern“. This final line of the inscription corresponds to the content of the poem. Another noteworthy inscription for the poem „Unex­pec­ted Encounter“ is: „It was a slight drizzle, and as soon as I got home I wrote this verse“. The paper also discusses A. Orbeliani's poems, dedicated to his wife Eka­terine Baratashvili: „Baiati“, „Unexpected Encounter“, „Tek­li­shi“ and other pieces, which are accompanied by inscriptions showing intense imp­ression, which are the best material for stu­dying the writer's lyric biography. The writer did not neglect his children in his poetry. The poem „Unfortunate Maiko (Mariam)“ is especially interesting since it reflects the most painful period of the poet’s biography – the shock caused by the death of his son. There are also many biographical elements in the writer’s plays and prose. In this regard, the play „Roman Woman Aaria“ de­di­cated to his mother, Tekle Batonishvili, the beloved daughter of Erekle II, is particularly notable. The prototype of the main charac­ter is the daughter of King Erekle. The play clearly characterizes Batonishvili Tekle’s strong character, as confirmed by the author’s inscription. In A. Orbeliani’s artistic works, one can endlessly find reflec­tions of his biography. This is an inexhaustible topic, because the writer worked on the important events of his life artistically and wro­te inscriptions, which provided an invaluable service for clari­fying and analyzing many issues of his work. Based on the reviewed material, we can conclude that the poet left us a biography trans­formed into poetry.
Martyrdom as Beauty: The Martyrdom of St. Queen Ketevan by the Poetic Visions of Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani and Dimitri Bagrationi
The poem about the martyrdom of his mother, Queen Ketevan, was written by King Teimuraz I (1589-1663) in 1627-1628. „The Torture and Book of Queen Ketevan“, in historical order, brief­ly describes the end of the life of the Queen of Kakheti – Saint Ketevan (1560-1624) and her torture, her dedication to the Chris­tian faith. In the poem, as a later addition, three stanzas written by Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani are included, where Ketevan's torture is directly shown, but, unlike Teimuraz's original and mostly realistic narrative, Orbeliani presents the spiritual and aesthetic dimension of the queen's torture with special attention from the beginning. Such a vision is based on a deep understanding of the religious content of the event itself. Torture is described by the poet as the beautification of the martyr, his perfect adornment with the charms of bodily beauty. Torture loses its tragic content because it is ima­gined as a queen standing in front of a mirror and beautifying the face or body. From Orbeliani's Christian point of view, a person is beautiful when she or he, when presented before God, is spiri­tually beautiful. The most beautiful is a saint who sacrifices his body for the faithfulness of the Christian faith. It is worth noting, primarily because of the poetic value of the text, another poem: „The Martyrdom of Saint Queen Ketevan“, which was published in 1819, and which was written by Dimitri Bagrationi (1746-1826), a Georgian poet, living in Russia. It is re­mar­kable that the author, while writing his work, is clearly based on Teimuraz's text, but he widely expands and develops the vision of the base tab – the aesthetic dimension of torture, which necessa­rily implies seeing the spiritual beauty and spiritual victory of the martyr behind the suffering. Dimitri Bagration’s writings express the poet's double vision: the earthly, visible reality acquires and carries a different meaning from the spiritual point of view, while it, and exactly what happens in the world, is evaluated accordingly from the heavenly height. The poets, Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani and Dimitri Orbeliani, firmly followed the direction indicated by Teimuraz and, following their own poetic vision, both impressively presented the beauty of torture.
The Language of Heart in "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" – Unpublished work by Victor Nozadze
The unpublished work of V. Nozadze "Vepkhistqaosnis Gulta­met­qve­leba (The language of Heart in The Knight in the Panther’s Skin”; autograph) is kept in the National Library of the Parliament of Georgia, in the archive of Victor Nozadze, brought from France by G. Sharadze. The work consists of two notebooks; The first note­book occupies pages 1-89 and consists of 27 small subsections, in which from the poems of "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" mainly the lines related to the heart are discussed. The second notebook includes pages 1-63 (the last 7 pages are missing) and here 36 sub­hea­dings are highlighted, in which from the poem the lines related to the character and circumstances of the heart are analyzed. The date of writing of the work is unknown. "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" presents general views on the heart. Here the biblical teaching on the heart occupies a large place. Two meanings of the heart are distinguished (the vital center and the bearer of spirituality – "spiritual heart") and the functions of the heart. V. Nozadze talks about the relationship between the heart and faith (faith is the "state of the heart"). Here, the most important thesis is expressed that in the Bible the heart is presented as a "subject = man", "the heart is a thinker and an actor". Accor­ding to V. Nozadze, the view of a Georgian person on the heart corres­ponds to the biblical understanding of the heart, however, the scientist does not believe that the Bible influences this, but – the personal opinion of Georgians about the heart, derived from reality. The work mentions that the "heart" in "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" is used more than 300 times, which is due to the importance of the heart in human life, namely, it is considered the "center of life" and the "principle of life". According to V. Nozadze, Rustaveli uses "heart" in the "folk" sense, in the meaning of feeling, psyche asso­ciated with consciousness and reason; and "brain" is not found in the poem, "brain" is a synonym for "heart". "Heart" is sometimes used instead of "mind" and "conscience". According to V. Nozadze, "heart" as a physical organ is rarely used in the poem, and then only in a figurative sense. Accor­ding to his definition, heart, knowledge and mind are inconceivable without each other, that consciousness and mind depend on feeling; and the heart, mind and soul – to­gether – are life. Here, a remarkable idea is emphasized that in "The Knight in the Panther's Skin", as in the Bible, the heart is personi­fied, it is the subject and the second person in a person. V. Nozadze singles out and explains phraseology, composites, epithets and metaphors related to the "heart" from the poem. When discussing va­rious issues, he mainly relies on the Bible, St. Fathers' Teachings, foreign and Georgian explanatory dictionaries, as well as on scientific literature. “The language of Heart in The Knight in the Panther’s Skin” by V. Nozadze, like his other works, is an extremely important fundamental study.